Starch for Snack Development

Specialty starches have the potential for tremendous processing, textural, and mouthfeel advantages in snack development. With dozens of food starches available, it can be difficult to know which one will best meet a particular functional challenge. This article gives some guidance on how to select an ideal starch for a particular type of snack and specific attribute.

Baked Snacks

Key concerns for developers of baked snacks include texture, product shape, and surface color. Baking develops the product’s structure, makes it edible, and makes it aesthetically desirable. Baking concerns encompass internal product temperature, which increases slowly compared with extrusion or frying. Slow heating means pregelatinized starches, also known as instant or cold-water-swelling starches are needed for this application.

These starches are preferred because of the slow cooking process and because there is aminimum of water in the snack dough.

With their fine starch granule size, waxy-based starches are most suitable for baked snack products because tests show they permit easy sheeting and good binding, which results in minimal breakage. Carefully chosen specialty starches can improve texture and forming and reduce cracking and breakage. For texture improvement, a modified, pregelatinized starch derived from waxy maize will serve well. To minimize forming and shaping problems, a bland, modified food starch that mimics fat or a modified, cold-waterswelling starch will give good results. Resistant starches (see sidebar on resistant starches) and high-amylose corn starch and modified high-amylose starches (see sidebar on amylose and amylopectin) can be used to reduce cracking and breakage that result in excessive losses.

Fried Snacks

Frying cooks a product to make it edible and dehydrates the product, creating a unique texture and pleasing mouthfeel. Oil temperatures typically reach 204- 260°C (400- 500°F), and processing time is short due to fast heat transfer. Under- or over- frying may affect texture and color. The use of an appropriate specialty starch for fried snacks can result in better texture, mouthfeel, and reduced oil absorption. Cross-linked or modified starches prevent the disruption of starch granules that can lead to poor texture and toothpacking in the mouth. With proper modification, specialty starches made from waxy maize, corn, and tapioca may be used to prevent these problems. High-amylose starches sometimes are used as coatings and may reduce oil absorption during frying because of their strong film forming characteristics. Modified high-performance resistant starches can provide these functions.

Extruded Snacks

Moist, starchy ingredients heated and sheared at high temperatures and pressure produce a melted, putty-like dough that expands when the pressure is released. By manipulating the ratio of high-amylose to high-amylopectin starch, a target texture can be achieved.

Generally, native starches cannot resist the high temperatures and high shear associated with extrusion. In contrast, cross-linked starches can resist shear and very high temperatures. However, excessively cross-linked starches lower the starch granules swelling capacity, resulting in a snack with reduced expansion and nonuniform texture.

Thus, a snack developer must select from many potential cook-up starches, including those made from corn, tapioca, and waxy maize. To select the best starch for the application, developers need to correctly quantify their maximum shear and know the temperature range in the extruder. If a snack developer can tell a starch manufacturer the degree of shear, the temperature, and any preferences for the starch base, a quick recommendation can be made. If a snack developer increases the amylose content of an extruded snack formula, the snack will be firmer, more crunchy, and harder.

However, These gains will be made at the expense of expansion, which declines as the percentage of amylose increases. An increase in amylopectin, on the other hand, increases snack
expansion and softness. For puffed snacks, the optimum cross-linked waxy corn starch can help control expansion and increase product uniformity.

Starch and Starch Derivatives for Snack Applications

Starches and starch derivatives have a long history of use in snack foods, especially as functional
ingredients to help snacks achieve various textural attributes.

For example, in expanded or puffed snacks, the target texture can be obtained by changing the amylose/ amylopectin ratio by manipulating combinations of high-amylose and high-amylopectin starches according to the properties desired. High-amylose corn starches, derived from genetic hybrids of regular corn, can be used when increased crunchiness and strength are required. An effective way to increase the expansion of a snack is to add waxy corn starch, which is essentially 100% amylopectin.

One problem with high-amylopectin starch is the breakdown of amylopectin molecules by the hightemperature/ high-shear processing conditions experienced during cooker extrusion and frying.

To increase the resistance of starch molecules to break down under excessive heat and shear, specialty starch suppliers use “crosslinking” agents to chemically modify the waxy corn starch.
A crosslinked waxy corn starch exhibits controlled expansion capabilities in the puffed snacks due to the improved resistance of amylopectin to breakdown.

For snacks that expand by baking, a different modification of waxy corn starch is required. In baking, where internal temperatures of snacks increase more slowly than in extrusion or frying, pregelatinized waxy corn starches are recommended.

Pregelatinized starches have been precooked in water and then dried; they require no further cooking before baking to contribute to texture development. This is an important feature because conditions in baked expanded snacks do not allow adequate gelatinization of regular waxy starch. Pregelatinized waxy corn starch allows the expansion process to begin earlier. In addition, high-amylose starches are used to reduce oil absorption in fried snacks, due to their strong film-forming properties.

Snack foods include a broad range of products that can take many forms, and definitions of snacks are being modified to include sandwiches, yogurt, and even ice cream. These items now compete with traditional savory, bagged snacks and confectioneries. It would be impossible to cover the whole range of what could be termed snack foods.
One of the reasons is that because of geographical and cultural differences, a product that is considered a snack by one population may not be considered one by another population. In this article, snacks include only savory products, such as chips, extruded snacks, nuts, popcorn, etc., as defined by the Snack Food Association.

New generation snacks fall into the following categories:

1. lower fat,
2. baked, not fried, and
3. high-fiber products.

These snack foods are triumphing because they promote a healthy image.
Starches are playing a very important role as functional ingredients to help snack foods achieve the healthy image. The following products contribute to the development of these new generation snacks.

New Specialty Starches

A new, high quality, modified cook-up starch with a low-viscosity profile imparts excellent levels of mouth feel to beverages, syrups and sauces. The product can typically be solubilized at temperatures over 65° C (150° F). It has outstanding processing and long-term and cold storage stability. It offers high levels of clarity, mouthfeel and a desirable texture.

Another new, instant, modified, cold-water-swelling starch provides a rich, creamy mouthfeel. It also contributes to smoothness and rich mouthfeel at low usage levels.

A third, new, modified, cold-water-swelling starch offers all of the advantages of the instant starch but disperses more easily, making it particularly suitable for low-sugar, artificially-sweetened drinks in which a lack of diluent solids results in lumping. It aids as a carrier for low-solubility ingredients and helps dispersion in dry mixes.

The product is also advantageous when processing parameters only allow for minimal mixing (shear) and little or no heat, or when it is desirable to eliminate a heating step to increase production efficiencies.

All of these new starches are designed for beverages and dry mixes where uniform dispersion and consistency are needed. Compared to other conventional hydrocolloids, the new specialty starches result in improved economics. Selection of the correct starch will provide many of the attributes necessary for achieving improved mouthfeel.

The organoleptic properties of many hydrocolloids have been characterized using rheological methods. Compared with non-starch hydrocolloids, starch and modified starch solutions are less slimy owing to higher shear thinning properties , as well as providing the most creamy hydrocolloid solution.

National Starch and Chemical Company has developed test methods linking sensory attributes to rheological and other physical properties, aiding the characterization of desirable attributes and development of prototypes that meet consumer demands more rapidly.

Modified Food Starches

Why Modified Food Starches Are Needed ?

A pudding mix that could be found in any grocery store has “food starch modified” as a major item in the ingredient list. It will be found on many product labels besides pudding, but, why is it in there?

Reasons for Modifying Starches

In general, modified food starches are used for three reasons.

1. they provide functional attributes in food applications that native starches normally cannot provide. In the pudding mix, the starch provides thickening power, a creamy short texture, and convenience if it is an instant system. In other applications, modified starch can provide a wide range of functions, from binding to disintegrating; imbibing or inhibiting moisture; producing a short, stringy, or cuttable texture; creating a smooth or pulpy texture; developing a soft or crisp coating; or stabilizing an emulsion.
2. starch is abundant and readily available.
3. starch can provide an economic advantage in many applications where higher priced items such as gums otherwise must be used.

Where Modified Food Starches Are Used

The modifications listed in the preceding section make starch an important functional ingredient for numerous food systems. Starch can be used in numerous possible functional application areas, including adhesion, antistaling, binding, clouding, dusting, emulsion stabilization, encapsulation, flowing aid, foam strengthening, gelling, glazing, moisture retention, molding, shaping, stabilizing and thickening.

For example, starch can be used on fried fish where it binds the breading to the fish piece, in processed meats where starch binds the juices, in orange soda where it provides emulsion stability, in candy where starch provides structure, and in numerous other applications where starch is used as a thickener.

Green Tea Diet Review

Due to the popularity of recent findings, green tea has almost become synonymous with weight loss and diet. The addition of green tea diet into diet pills and weight loss supplements is perhaps spurred by reports of harmful side-effects of other drugs like ephedra.

Why choose green tea diet?

For four thousand years, green tea diet has been used all throughout Asia as a beneficial health and medicinal drink. Green tea diet is different from all other tea diets because its liquid is extracted by steaming the leaves of the Camellia sinensis plant as opposed to full oxidation. In this way, green tea diet manages to preserve a lot more antioxidants and keep them intact for the body to use.

Green tea diet is an excellent source of polycatechin polyphenols, a group of antioxidants that act on free radicals. These free radicals have harmful effects on the body since they are the major causes of diseases and aging. With green tea diet’s polycatechin polyphenols, a person has a better chance of avoiding ailments and keeping himself healthy for a much longer period of time.
Another antioxidant in green tea diet is also being studied as a potential cure for cancer. Epigallocatechin gallate or EGCG found in green tea diet has been discovered to destroy cancer cells while keeping surrounding healthy cells unharmed.

The EGCG in green tea diet also acts with another compound, caffeine (a small amount of this is found in green tea). The interaction of these two compounds causes green tea diet to promote thermogenesis in the body.

It has been noted by a study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition that with the consumption of green tea diet, the body’s total 24-hour energy expenditure is increased by up to four percent. This is roughly equivalent to losing more than 10 pounds of weight a month.
Green tea diet helps increase the body’s metabolic rates. With its thermogenic properties, it is only natural that green tea diet can also promote faster metabolism of fats and sugars. Excess glucose found in the body is turned into fats by the hormone insulin. Because green tea diet has an inhibiting effect on insulin, green tea diet therefore helps keep sugar from being stored as fats and instead, send them directly into the muscles for immediate use.

The downside to a green tea diet

Although green tea diet has a reputation for boosting health, scientific proofs of its health benefits are still somewhat mixed. However, in an article published in the Archives of Internal Medicine, American researchers collaborated with their Chinese counterparts to discuss the beneficial effects of green tea diet on cholesterol levels.

Using 240 men and women (average age 55) who possess mild to moderately high LDL cholesterol levels, the researchers instructed them to retain their usual low-fat diet, green tea diet intake, and activity levels. After twelve weeks, it was found that those who consumed green tea diet extract with their regular meals lost more than fifteen percent of their total LDL cholesterol levels.

Although the researchers never explained how green tea diet may influence cholesterol levels, previous studies have shown that certain compounds in green tea diet play a role in reducing the amount of cholesterol absorbed by the body, increasing amount of cholesterol excreted, and thus keeping cholesterol from being stored in the liver.

Subsequent studies were made to test the findings of the first group of researchers. Their results were contradictory. They found that green tea diet has no significant effect on the cholesterol profiles of their subjects.

There is no such thing as a miracle diet. Green tea diet, like all other diets, needs a lot of work and input from those who enroll in it. Green tea diet required both discipline and heart for it to make any significant impact on your weight loss goals.

Green Tea Diet Supplement

Green tea diet supplements are all the latest rage in the weight loss industry today. With its countless health and weight loss benefits, green tea diet supplements are fast replacing ephedra as the leading weight loss product in the market.

So what makes green tea diet supplement different?

For one, green tea diet supplement provides its user with an organic alternative to losing weight. Taken from the Camellia sinensis plant, green tea diet supplement contains ingredients that are beneficial to the body.

Several studies have been made on the effects of green tea diet supplements. It has been shown that the green tea extract found in green tea diet supplements contains a high amount of polyphenols. These substances in green tea diet supplements are natural bioflavonoids that act on the harmful free radicals that are the major causes of aging and diseases. By destroying the free radicals, the polyphenols in green tea diet supplements thus helps protect you from aging and diseases.

Green tea diet supplements are also great appetite-suppressants. In fact, this attribute of green tea diet supplements is one of the main reasons why it was made into a diet supplement in the first place. Green tea diet supplements affect how the appetite hormone noradrenaline acts. By suppressing noradrenaline, green tea diet supplements help reduce the occurrence of hunger pangs and make sure that you do not take in more food than you actually need.

Green tea diet supplements are also known for their major fat-burning attributes. Green tea diet supplements contain a significant amount of caffeine that accounts for its reputation as a great metabolic rate enhancer. Studies have show time and time again that caffeine in green tea diet supplements can cause a four percent increase in the body’s total energy expenditure. But unlike other diet products, green tea diet supplements increase metabolic rates without necessarily affecting the person’s heart rate. This is due to the fact that green tea diet supplements contain less caffeine than the average caffeinated drink or caffeinated diet products like ephedra. This makes green tea diet supplement a safer, healthier choice.

Aside from burning calories and increasing metabolism, green tea diet supplements are also highly valued for their ability to lower down cholesterol levels in a person. The antioxidants found in green tea diet supplements targets the bad cholesterol found in the body and in the process help maintain the ration between LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol.

Green tea diet supplements contain substances that have great thermogenic effects on the body. Thermogenesis is the process by which the body converts fat and calories into heat energy. The process is usually occurs when polyphenols interact with other substances, causing heat to be released. With the high amount of polyphenols in green tea diet supplements, it is not avoidable that thermogenesis occurs.

A study on the thermogenic effects of green tea diet supplements was recently concluded at the University of Geneva. The scientists found that of the ten healthy young men that served as their experimental subjects, only those who were given green tea diet supplements showed an impressive four percent increase in their total 24-hour energy expenditure. From their findings, the researchers surmised that green tea diet supplements can promote weight loss.

Information on Green Tea Diet

For centuries now, the benefits of green tea diets have been the subject of countless writings and scientific investigations.

More than four thousand years ago, green tea diet has become a staple beverage for most Asians because of its countless health and medicinal benefits. It is said that the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung was the first one to have discovered green tea diet. Emperor Shen Nung was reported to have been boiling water when some leaves of a nearby plant fell into his pot. The leaves actually came from Camellia sinensis, the herb from which green tea diet is extracted.

Having a green tea diet is associated with several health benefits. One of the benefits of having a green tea diet is providing a potential cure for cancer. According to some studies, certain substances in green tea diet can destroy cancel cells without harming any neighboring healthy tissues. This substance in green tea diets is called epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG).

The results of the study on the cancer benefit of green tea diets were astounding and it led to further more researches that investigate other aspects of green tea diet. In a study conducted by American and Swiss scientists in the University of Geneva, it has been found that the EGCG found in green tea diets can increase the 24-hour energy expenditure of the body. They concluded that this is due to the ability of antioxidants present in green tea diet to stimulate thermogenesis, otherwise known as fat metabolism. According to their findings, people who were on a green tea diet exhibited a significant four percent increase in their normal metabolic rates. This led the scientists to conclude that green tea diet has a major contributing factor in weight loss.

Another study conducted in China was designed to investigate further on green tea diet’s weight loss benefit. They decided that since green tea diet can significantly increase fat metabolism, then green tea diet probably would help lowering down cholesterol levels as well. Their hypothesis was proven when they introduced green tea diet on 240 people with mild to extremely high cholesterol levels. After only twelve weeks, they observed that those on a green tea diet dropped sixteen percent in their cholesterol levels.

Based on the above study, it can also be hypothesized that green tea diet can cure obesity. Green tea diet’s catechin polyphenols can delay the reaction of gastric and pancreatic lipases in the body. These enzymes are the ones responsible for storing calories into fats in the body. By delaying these enzymes, green tea diets can therefore lessen fat concentration and prevent obesity in people.

A truly remarkable beverage, green tea diet is used to improve the body’s health in many ways. Further studies were made on the benefits of green tea diets. The latest ones were able to prove that green tea diet can effectively protect the skin from damage due to ultraviolet light radiation.

Green tea diet is also widely recognized as a substance that can protect against many different cancers such as stomach cancer, ovarian cancer, cancer of the colon, oral cancer, prostate cancer, and breast and cervical cancers.

The Health Benefits of Green Tea

How do you fit a miracle in a cup?

For 4,000 years, the Chinese people have been using green tea as treatment for everything from headaches to depression. Today, studies are conducted in Asia and the west in order to produce hard evidence of the health benefits of green tea.

In the 1994 edition of the Journal of National Cancer Institute, the results of an epidemiological study stated that one of the health benefits of drinking green tea is that it can reduce the risk of esophageal cancer in Chinese men and women by up to 60%. The rich presence of catechin polyphenols, particularly epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the reason why green tea has so much health benefits.

A powerful antioxidant, EGCG can not only inhibit the growth of cancer cells but can also destroy them without harming healthy cells. The University of Purdue has also concluded a research on how a certain compound present in green tea can stop cancer cells from growing. Still another health benefit of green tea is its ability to lower down cholesterol levels and improve the ratio between good (HDL) cholesterol and bad (LDL) cholesterol.

The EGCG in green tea is a health benefit substance that can lower down LDL cholesterol levels and stop blood from forming abnormal clots (thrombosis), a leading cause of heart attacks and strokes. Green tea has more health benefits compared to other Chinese teas like oolong and black tea, all of which come from the plant Camellia sinensis. What makes green tea different is the process by which it is made.

Green tea owes much of its health benefits to how the Camellia sinensis leaves are steamed. The steam process keeps the EGCG health benefit of green tea from oxidizing. With oolong and black teas, however, the leaves are fermented instead of being steamed, thus causing the EGCG health benefit to transform into another less medicinally potent form. Aside from medicinal value, green tea can also offer other health benefits, especially in the fitness field.

Drinking green tea can cause a person to burn down more calories. A recent study on the health benefits of green tea shows that the drink can help dieters. According to the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition in 1999, men who take both caffeine and green tea burn down more calories than men who only take caffeine or a placebo.

Another health benefit of green tea is its bacteria-destroying properties. The health benefit of green tea in this area is that it can help prevent food poisoning and also prevent tooth decay. The substances found in green tea kill the bacteria causing food poisoning and those that cause dental plaque to form.

Well known for its countless medicinal and health benefits, green tea is nothing short of a miracle.

Pentastarch

Pentastarch is a subgroup of hydroxyethyl starch, with five hydroxyethyl groups.

It is sold under the name Pentaspan and used for fluid resuscitation. It is considered a plasma expander because it remains primarily intravascular after infusion.

Choice of resuscitation fluid

The choice of fluid (normal saline vs. Ringer's lactate vs. pentaspan) is controversial.

Physiologically, fluid with pentaspan stays primarily in the intravascular space - blood plasma. This is different than normal saline, which shifts quickly into the rest of the extracellular compartment.

Advocates of pentaspan use believe that:

1. the primary deficit in fluid resuscitation is intravascular volume loss and
2. use of normal saline may lead to pulmonary edema, particularly in older patients.

Normal saline versus pentastarch

Casualty

Pentastarch in the emergency setting is not well studied and its use not of proven benefit. One small study, comparing normal saline and pentastarch, failed to show any significant survival advantage; however, significantly less volume was required for resuscitation in the pentastarch group.

Cardiac surgery

A study is currently being done to compare normal saline with pentastarch following cardiac surgery.

Cost

Pentastarch is more expensive than normal saline, but less expensive than albumin.

Hydroxyethyl starch

Hydroxyethyl starch (HES/HAES) is a nonionic starch derivative. It is one of the most frequently used blood plasma substitutes under the trade names Hespan by B. Braun Medical Inc. and Voluven by Fresenius Kabi. It is also used in oil drilling.

Therapeutic use

An intravenous solution of hydroxyethyl starch is used to prevent shock following severe blood loss caused by trauma, surgery, or some other problem. It increases the blood volume, allowing red blood cells to continue to deliver oxygen to the body.

Contraindications

• This product should not be used in people who are hypersensitive or allergic to hydroxyethyl starch.
• Patients with kidney failure not related to low blood volume and patients on dialysis should avoid this product in high doses which are used for volume expansion.
• Use of hydroxyetyl starch with normal saline in its preparation is contraindicated in people with severe increases in blood levels of sodium or chloride.
• Patients with bleeding inside the head should not use this product.

Pharmacokinetics

The elimination depends on molar substitution degree. Molecules smaller than the renal threshold (60–70 kDa) are readily excreted in the urine while the larger ones are metabolized by plasma α–amylase before the degradation products are renally excreted.

Adverse effects

Anaphylactoid reactions: hypersensitivity, mild influenza-like symptoms, bradycardia, tachycardia, bronchospasm and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema.

Decrease in hematocrit and disturbances in coagulation. May be associated with covering the use of anabolic steroids/EPO for endurance athletes.

HES derivatives with a higher molecular weight (200 kDa) have been demonstrated to have increased rates of acute renal failure and need for renal replacement therapy and to decrease long-term survival when used alone in cases of severe sepsis compared with Ringer Lactate solution (Brunkhorst 2008). This study specifically used 10% HES with 0.45-0.55 substitution grade and molecular weight of 200 kDa (Hemohes). It also used a regimen without any crystalloids and was critized for its study design. The same effects have not been observed with HES 130kDa/0.4.

Health Effects Of HFCS

Critics of HFCS point out a correlation between increased usage of HFCS in foods and obesity rates in the United States over three decades. Some allege that HFCS is in itself more detrimental to health than table sugar (sucrose); others claim that the low cost of HFCS encourages overconsumption of sugars.

The Corn Refiners Association has launched an aggressive advertising campaign to counter these criticisms, claiming that high fructose corn syrup "is natural" and "has the same natural sweeteners as table sugar". Both sides point to studies in peer reviewed journals that allegedly support their point of view.

In his recent book In Defense of Food: An Eater's Manifesto, journalist Michael Pollan claims that the way that the body processes HFCS is different from the way it processes the glucose and fructose found in other sugars. Digesting sucrose requires the production of an enzyme called sucrase, which breaks the bond between the glucose molecule and the fructose molecule. Because the body regulates its production of sucrase, it can only digest sucrose at a certain rate. Because digesting HFCS does not require sucrase, the rate at which it is digested is not similarly regulated by the body.

Elliot et al., implicate increased consumption of fructose (due primarily to the increased consumption of sugars but also partly due to the slightly higher fructose content of HFCS as compared to sucrose) in obesity and insulin resistance. Chi-Tang Ho et al. found that soft drinks sweetened with HFCS are up to 10 times richer in harmful carbonyl compounds, such as methylglyoxal, than a diet soft drink control. Carbonyl compounds are elevated in people with diabetes and are blamed for causing diabetic complications such as foot ulcers and eye and nerve damage;

A study in mice suggests that fructose increases obesity. Large quantities of fructose stimulate the liver to produce triglycerides, promotes glycation of proteins and induces insulin resistance. According to one study, the average American consumes nearly 70 pounds of HFCS a year, marking HFCS as a major contributor to the rising rates of obesity in the last generation.

In a 2007 study, rats were fed a diet high in fat and HFCS and kept them relatively sedentary for 16 weeks in an attempt to emulate the diet and lifestyle of many Americans. The rats were not forced to eat, but were able to eat as much as they wanted; they consumed a large amount of food, suggesting that fructose suppresses the sensation of fullness.

Within four weeks, the rats showed early signs of fatty liver disease and type II diabetes. Shapiro et al. fed rats a high-fructose diet for six months and compared them to rats that had been fed a fructose-free diet. Although the rats that had consumed high levels of fructose showed no change in weight, when compared to the rats that had consumed a fructose-free diet, levels of leptin in the blood of rats fed a high-fructose diet indicated the development of leptin resistance.

When the rats were switched to a high-fat diet, the leptin-resistant rats, those fed a high-fructose diet, gained more weight than those who had not developed the resistance and had been fed a fructose-free diet.

Several studies funded by Tate & Lyle, a large corn refiner, the American Beverage Institute and the Corn Refiners Association, have defended HFCS. Forshee et al. concluded "that HFCS does not appear to contribute to overweight and obesity any differently than do other energy sources." Melanson et al. (2006), studied the effects of HFCS and sucrose sweetened drinks on blood glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin levels. They found no significant differences in any of these parameters.

Monsivais et al. (2007) compared the effects of isocaloric servings of colas sweetened with HFCS 45, HFCS 55, sucrose, and aspartame on satiety and subsequent energy intake. They found that all of the drinks with caloric sweeteners produced similar satiety responses, and had the same effects on subsequent energy intake. Critics of HFCS, however, argue that the corn-industry funding of these studies leads to a possible conflict of interest, discrediting their results.

One much-publicized 2004 study found an association between obesity and high HFCS consumption, especially from soft drinks. However, this study provided only correlative data. One of the study coauthors, Dr. Barry M. Popkin, is quoted in the New York Times as saying, "I don't think there should be a perception that high-fructose corn syrup has caused obesity until we know more."In the same article, Walter Willett, chair of the nutrition department of the Harvard School of Public Health, is quoted as saying, "There's no substantial evidence to support the idea that high-fructose corn syrup is somehow responsible for obesity .... If there was no high-fructose corn syrup, I don't think we would see a change in anything important." Willett also recommends drinking water over soft drinks containing sugars or high-fructose corn syrup.

A pilot study reported that high-fructose corn syrup manufactured in the U.S. in 2005 was commonly tainted with mercury. The mercury appeared to come from caustic soda and hydrochloric acid, two chemicals used in the manufacture of high-fructose corn syrup that can, depending on their manufacturing process, contain traces of mercury. Mercury concentration in HFCS was as high as 0.570 μg/g (micrograms per gram).

Public Relations

Labeling as "natural"

In May 2006, the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) threatened to file a lawsuit against Cadbury Schweppes for labeling 7 Up as "All Natural" or "100% Natural", despite the presence of high-fructose corn syrup. Although the U.S. FDA has no general definition of "natural", CSPI claims that HFCS is not a “natural” ingredient due to the high level of processing and the use of at least one genetically modified (GMO) enzyme required to produce it. On January 12, 2007, Cadbury Schweppes agreed to stop calling 7 Up "All Natural". They now label it "100% Natural Flavors".

HFCS Advertisements

In September 2008, the Corn Refiners Association launched a series of United States television advertisements that claim that HFCS "is made from corn", "is natural" (changed from previously-stated "doesn't have artificial ingredients"), "has the same calories as sugar or honey", "is nutritionally the same as sugar", and "is fine in moderation". The ads feature actors portraying roles in upbeat domestic situations with sugary foods, with one actor disparaging a food's HFCS content but being unable to explain why, and another actor rebuking the comments with these claims. Finally, the ads each plug the Corn Refiners Association website. As HFCS is a controversial topic, parodies and criticisms of the ads have appeared on YouTube.

High-fructose corn syrup

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) – called isoglucose^[1] in Europe and glucose-fructose in Canada – comprises any of a group of corn syrups that has undergone enzymatic processing to increase its fructose content, and then been mixed with pure corn syrup (100% glucose). HFCS is ubiquitous in processed foods and beverages, including soft drinks, yogurt, cookies, salad dressing and tomato soup.

The most common types of high-fructose corn syrup are: HFCS 90 (mostly for making HFCS 55), approximately 90% fructose and 10% glucose; HFCS 55 (mostly used in soft drinks), approximately 55% fructose and 45% glucose; and HFCS 42 (used in most foods and baked goods), approximately 42% fructose and 58% glucose.

The process by which HFCS is produced was first developed by Richard Off. Marshalle and Earl P. Kooi in 1927. The industrial production process was refined by Dr. Y. Takasaki at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Ministry of International Trade and Industry of Japan in 1965–1970. HFCS was rapidly introduced to many processed foods and soft drinks in the U.S. from about 1975 to 1985.

Per relative sweetness, HFCS 55 is comparable to table sugar (sucrose), a disaccharide of fructose and glucose. That makes it useful to food manufacturers as a substitute for sucrose in soft drinks and processed foods. HFCS 90 is sweeter than sucrose; HFCS 42 is less sweet than sucrose.

Use as a replacement for sugar

Since its introduction, HFCS has begun to replace sugar in various processed foods in the USA and Canada. The main reasons for this switch are:

• HFCS is somewhat cheaper in the United States due to a combination of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs/quotas. Since the mid-90s US Federal subsidies to corn growers have amounted to $40 billion.
• HFCS is easier to blend and transport because it is a liquid.

Production

High-fructose corn syrup is produced by milling corn to produce corn starch, then processing that corn starch to yield corn syrup which is almost entirely glucose, and then adding enzymes which change the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup (after enzyme conversion) contains approximately 90% fructose and is HFCS 90. To make the other common forms of HFCS (HFCS 55 and HFCS 42) the HFCS 90 is mixed with 100% glucose corn syrup in the appropriate ratios to form the desired HFCS. The enzyme process which changes the 100% glucose corn syrup into HFCS 90 is as follows:

1. Cornstarch is treated with alpha-amylase to produce shorter chains of sugars called oligosaccharides.
2. Glucoamylase breaks the sugar chains down even further to yield the simple sugar glucose.
3. Xylose isomerase (aka glucose isomerase) converts glucose to a mixture of about 42% fructose and 50–52% glucose with some other sugars mixed in.

While inexpensive alpha-amylase and glucoamylase are added directly to the slurry and used only once, the more costly glucose-isomerase is packed into columns and the sugar mixture is then passed over it, allowing it to be used repeatedly until it loses its activity. This 42–43% fructose glucose mixture is then subjected to a liquid chromatography step where the fructose is enriched to approximately 90%.

The 90% fructose is then back-blended with 42% fructose to achieve a 55% fructose final product. Most manufacturers use carbon absorption for impurity removal. Numerous filtration, ion-exchange and evaporation steps are also part of the overall process.

The units of measurement for sugars including HFCS are degrees Brix (symbol °Bx). Brix is a measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved sugars to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx solution has 25 grams of sugar per 100 grams of solution (25% w/w). Or, to put it another way, there are 25 grams of sugar and 75 grams of water in the 100 grams of solution. The Brix measurement was introduced by Antoine Brix.

When an infrared Brix sensor is used, it measures the vibrational frequency of the high-fructose corn syrup molecules, giving a Brix degrees measurement. This will not be the same measurement as Brix degrees using a density or refractive index measurement because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When a refractometer is used, it is correct to report the result as "refractometric dried substance" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as being 20 °Bx RDS.

This is a measure of percent by weight of total dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content since the majority of dried solids are in fact sucrose. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors have made measuring the amount of dissolved HFCS in products economical using a direct measurement. It also gives the possibility of a direct volume/volume measurement.

Recently an isotopic method for quantifying sweeteners derived from corn and sugar cane was developed by Jahren et al. which permits measurement of corn syrup and cane sugar derived sweeteners in humans thus allowing dietary assessment of the intake of these substances relative to total intake.

Dextrin

Dextrins are a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by the hydrolysis of starch. Dextrins are mixtures of linear α-(1,4)-linked D-glucose polymers starting with an α-(1,6) bond.

Because branched amylopectin and glycogen also contain α-(1,6) bonds, which α-amylase cannot hydrolyze in humans, the digest resulting from this action contains a mixture of dextrins. They have the same general formula as carbohydrates but are of shorter chain length.

Industrial production is, in general, performed by acidic hydrolysis of potato starch. Dextrins are water-soluble, white to slightly yellow solids that are optically active. Under analysis, dextrins can be detected with iodine solution, giving a red coloration.

The cyclical dextrins are known as cyclodextrins. They are formed by enzymatic degradation of starch by certain bacteria, for example, Bacillus macerans. Cyclodextrins have toroidal structures formed by 6-8 glucose residues.

Dextrins find widespread use in industry, due to their non-toxicity and their low price. They are used as water-soluble glues, as thickening agents in food processing, and as binding agent in pharmaceuticals. In pyrotechnics, they are added to fire formulas, allowing them to solidify as pellets or "stars." Cyclodextrins find additional use in analytical chemistry as a matrix for the separation of hydrophobic substances, and as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations. Not all forms of dextrin are digestible, and indigestible dextrin is sometimes used in fiber supplements.

Maltodextrin is a polysaccharide that is used as a food additive. It is produced from starch and is usually found as a creamy-white hygroscopic powder. Maltodextrin is easily digestible, being absorbed as rapidly as glucose, and might either be moderately sweet or might have hardly any flavor at all. The CAS registry number of maltodextrin is 9050-36-6.

Maltodextrin can be derived from any starch. In the US, this starch is usually rice, corn or potato; elsewhere, such as in Europe, it is commonly wheat. This is important for coeliacs, since the wheat-derived maltodextrin can contain traces of gluten.

There have been recent reports of coeliac reaction to maltodextrin in the United States. This might be a consequence of the shift of corn to ethanol production and its replacement with wheat in the formulation. Wendy's, the fast food chain footnotes maltodextrin in its list of gluten-free foods, which may be a sign of their receiving reports of these.

Other authorities on gluten maintain the source does not matter because maltodextrin is such a highly processed ingredient that the protein is removed, rendering it gluten free. If wheat is used to make maltodextrin, it will appear on the label. Even so, the maltodextrin will be gluten free.

Foods containing maltodextrin may contain traces of amino acids, including glutamic acid as a manufacturing by-product. Any amino acid traces would be too small to have any dietary significance.

Maltodextrin may contain monosodium glutamate or create MSG during processing.

Cornstarch

Cornstarch, or cornflour, is the starch of the corn (maize) grain. It is also grown from the endosperm, or white heart, of the corn kernel. It has a distinctive appearance and feel when mixed raw with water or milk, giving easily to gentle pressure but resisting sudden pressure.

It is usually included as an anti-caking agent in powdered sugar (10X or confectioner's sugar). For this reason, recipes calling for powdered sugar often call for at least light cooking to remove the raw cornstarch taste.

Cornstarch or cornflour is also used as a thickening agent in soups and liquids. As the starch is heated by the liquid, the molecule chains unravel, allowing them to collide with other starch chains to form a mesh - thus slowing the movement of water molecules. This results in thickening of the liquid, be it soup, stock or other culinary liquids.

Manufacture

The corn is steeped for 30 to 48 hours, which ferments it a little. The germ is separated from the endosperm and those two components are ground separately (still soaked). Next the starch is removed from each by washing. It is separated from the gluten and other substances, mostly in hydrocyclones and centrifuges, and dried. (The residue from every stage is used in animal feed and other products.) Finally the starch may be modified for specific purposes.

Other

Amylophagia is a condition involving the compulsive consumption of excessive amounts of purified starch, often cornstarch.

Other names and varieties

• Called cornflour in Commonwealth countries.

Functionality Of Starch

Starch is a versatile and cheap, and has many uses as thickener, water binder, emulsion stabilizer and gelling agent. Starch is often used as an inherent natural ingredient but it is also added for its functionality.

It is naturally found tightly and radially packed into dehydrated granules (about one water per glucose) with origin-specific shape and size (maize, 2-30 μm; wheat, 1-45 µm; potato, 5-100 μm ). The size distribution determines its swelling functionality with granules being generally either larger and lenticular (lens-like, A-starch) or smaller and spherical (B-starch) with less swelling power.

Granules contain 'blocklets' of amylopectin containing both crystalline (~30%) and amorphous areas. As they absorb water, they swell, lose crystallinity and leach amylose. The higher the amylose content, the lower is the swelling power and the smaller is the gel strength for the same starch concentration. To a certain extent, however, a smaller swelling power due to high amylose content can be counteracted by a larger granule size .

Although the properties of starch are naturally inconsistent, being dependent on the vagaries of agriculture, there are several suppliers of consistently uniform starches as functional ingredients.

Of the two components of starch, amylose has the most useful functions as a hydrocolloid. Its extended conformation causes the high viscosity of water-soluble starch and varies relatively little with temperature. The extended loosely helical chains possess a relatively hydrophobic inner surface that is not able to hold water well and more hydrophobic molecules such as lipids and aroma compounds can easily replace this.

Amylose forms useful gels and films. Its association and crystallization (retrogradation) on cooling and storage decreases storage stability causing shrinkage and the release of water (syneresis). Increasing amylose concentration decreases gel stickiness but increases gel firmness. Amylopectin interferes with the interaction between amylose chains (and retrogradation) and its solution can lead to an initial loss in viscosity and followed by a more slimy consistency.

Mixing with κ-carrageenan, alginate, xanthan gum and low molecular weight sugars can also reduce retrogradation. At high concentrations, starch gels are both pseudoplastic and thixotropic with greater storage stability. Their water binding ability (high but relatively weak) can provide body and texture to foodstuffs and is encouraging its use as a fat replacement.

A significant proportion of starch in the normal diet escapes degradation in the stomach and small intestine and is labeled 'resistant starch' (for a recent review see ), but this portion is difficult to measure and depends on a number of factors including the form of starch and the method of cooking prior to consumption.

Nevertheless resistant starch serves as a primary source of substrate for colonic microflora, and may have several important physiological roles. Resistant starch has been categorized as physically inaccessible (RS₁), (raw) ungelatinized starch (for example, in banana; RS₂ ), thermally stable retrograded starch (for example, as found in bread, especially stale bread, mainly amylose; RS₃) and chemically modified starch (RS₄). Resistant starch should be considered a dietary fiber.

Although not exactly quantifiable due to its heterogeneous nature, some is determined by the official Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC) method. Starch with structure intermediate between the more crystalline resistant starch (for example, RS₃ in staled bread) and more amorphous rapidly digestible starch (for example, in boiled potato) is slowly digestible starch (for example, in boiled millet). Slowly digestible starch gives reduced postprandial blood glucose peaks and is therefore useful in the diabetic diet.

Many functional derivatives of starch are marketed including cross-linked, oxidized, acetylated, hydroxypropylated and partially hydrolyzed material. For example, partially hydrolyzed (that is, about two bonds hydrolyzed out of eleven) starch (dextrin) is used in sauces to control viscosity.

Starch Structure

Sources for starch

Starch is the major carbohydrate reserve in plant tubers and seed endosperm where it is found as granules , each typically containing several million amylopectin molecules accompanied by a much larger number of smaller amylose molecules. By far the largest source of starch is corn (maize) with other commonly used sources being wheat, potato, tapioca and rice. Amylopectin (without amylose) can be isolated from 'waxy' maize starch whereas amylose (without amylopectin) is best isolated after specifically hydrolyzing the amylopectin with pullulanase . Genetic modification of starch crops has recently led to the development of starches with improved and targeted functionality.

Structural unit

Starch consists of two types of molecules, amylose (normally 20-30%) and amylopectin (normally 70-80%). Both consist of polymers of α-D-glucose units in the ⁴C₁ conformation. In amylose these are linked -(1" width="22" height="10">4)-, with the ring oxygen atoms all on the same side, whereas in amylopectin about one residue in every twenty or so is also linked -(1" width="22" height="10">6)- forming branch-points. The relative proportions of amylose to amylopectin and -(1" width="22" height="10">6)- branch-points both depend on the source of the starch, for example, amylomaizes contain over 50% amylose whereas 'waxy' maize has almost none (~3%) .

Molecular structure

Amylose and amylopectin are inherently incompatible molecules; amylose having lower molecular weight with a relatively extended shape whereas amylopectin has huge but compact molecules. Most of their structure consists of α-(1" width="22" height="10">4)-D-glucose units. Although the α-(1" width="22" height="10">4) links are capable of relatively free rotation around the (φ) phi and (ψ) psi torsions, hydrogen bonding between the O3' and O2 oxygen atoms of sequential residues tends to encourage a helical conformation. These helical structures are relatively stiff and may present contiguous hydrophobic surfaces.

Amylose

Amylose molecules consist of single mostly-unbranched chains with 500-20,000 α-(1" width="22" height="10">4)-D-glucose units dependent on source (a very few α-1" width="22" height="10">6 branches and linked phosphate groups may be found , but these have little influence on the molecule's behavior ). Amylose can form an extended shape (hydrodynamic radius 7-22 nm ) but generally tends to wind up into a rather stiff left-handed single helix or form even stiffer parallel left-handed double helical junction zones. Single helical amylose has hydrogen-bonding O2 and O6 atoms on outside surface of the helix with only the ring oxygen pointing inwards.

Hydrogen bonding between aligned chains causes retrogradation and releases some of the bound water (syneresis). The aligned chains may then form double stranded crystallites that are resistant to amylases. These possess extensive inter- and intra-strand hydrogen bonding, resulting in a fairly hydrophobic structure of low solubility. The amylose content of starches is thus the major cause of resistant starch formation.

Single helix amylose behaves similarly to the cyclodextrins by possessing a relatively hydrophobic inner surface that holds a spiral of water molecules, which are relatively easily lost to be replaced by hydrophobic lipid or aroma molecules. It is also responsible for the characteristic binding of amylose to chains of charged iodine molecules (for example, the polyiodides; chains of I₃^- and I₅^- forming structures such as I₉^3- and I₁₅^3-; note that neutral I₂ molecules may give polyiodides in aqueous solution and there is no interaction with I₂ molecules except under strictly anhydrous conditions) where each turn of the helix holds about two iodine atoms and a blue color is produced due to donor-acceptor interaction between water and the electron deficient polyiodides.

Amylopectin

Amylopectin is formed by non-random α-1" width="22" height="10">6 branching of the amylose-type α-(1" width="22" height="10">4)-D-glucose structure. This branching is determined by branching enzymes that leave each chain with up to 30 glucose residues. Each amylopectin molecule contains a million or so residues, about 5% of which form the branch points. There are usually slightly more 'outer' unbranched chains (called A-chains) than 'inner' branched chains (called B-chains). There is only one chain (called the C-chain) containing the single reducing group.

A-chains generally consist of between 13-23 residues . There are two main fractions of long and short internal B-chains with the longer chains (greater than about 23-35 residues) connecting between clusters and the shorter chains similar in length to the terminal A-chains .

Each amylopectin molecule contains up to two million glucose residues in a compact structure with hydrodynamic radius 21-75 nm . The molecules are oriented radially in the starch granule and as the radius increases so does the number of branches required to fill up the space, with the consequent formation of concentric regions of alternating amorphous and crystalline structure.

B - shows the organization of the amorphous and crystalline regions (or domains) of the structure generating the concentric layers that contribute to the “growth rings“ that are visible by light microscopy. C - shows the orientation of the amylopectin molecules in a cross section of an idealized entire granule.

D - shows the likely double helix structure taken up by neighboring chains and giving rise to the extensive degree of crystallinity in granule. There is some debate over the form of the crystalline structure but it appears most likely that it consists of parallel left-handed helices with six residues per turn. An alternative arrangement of interconnecting clusters has been described for some amylopectins .

Some amylopectin (for example, from potato) has phosphate groups attached to some hydroxyl groups, which increase its hydrophilicity and swelling power. Amylopectin double-helical chains can either form the more open hydrated Type B hexagonal crystallites or the denser Type A crystallites, with staggered monoclinic packing, dependent on the plant source of the granules . Type A, with unbroken chain lengths of about 23-29 glucose units is found in most cereals.

Type B, with slightly longer unbroken chain lengths of about 30-44 glucose units is found in banana, some tubers such as potato and high amylose cereal starches. There is also a type C structure, which is a combination of types A and B and found in peas and beans. Starch granule architecture has been recently described

a renewable raw material

Starch is abundant. All major agricultural crops contain starch. Colder climates favour potato growing, the tropics cassava, while grain varieties are grown all over the world. With sun and water as the main limitations, fifteen tons of starch dry mater can be achieved per hectare.

Modern techniques enable starch to be extracted from agricultural crops with high yield and extreme purity, making starch the most versatile raw material used within the food and chemical industries. The starch granule is a compact package of pure glucose polymer.

The purity and efficient moisture absorbing properties of starch have made it indispensable in the production of medicinal tablets and as a moisture regulator.

Polymer releases from the granule during cooking. At 60 ^oC, the polymer begins to hydrate, adding its viscosity and gelling power to the water. This is the way puddings are made in the home - just by using native starch. The food industry also employs native starch as a binder and thickening agent in snacks, meat products, sausages, etc.

Although native starch does have its industrial uses, most often industry requires the functionality of modified starch. The modification is achieved in one of two ways - either by the starch producer, who modifies the starch without disrupting the granules, or by the end-user who cooks and modifies the starch in a single step operation. The first method results in a granular product good for storage and the other in a ready-to-use paste. The two methods do not always act as a substitute for the other.

The single largest consumer of modified starch is the paper industry.

Starches are used as wet-end additives, as size press starches, as binders in coatings and as adhesives. Cationic starches provide retention at the wet-end and reduce the amount of pollutants released. Oxidised starch is a good film-forming product - a favoured material for coating and surface sizing. Thin boiling starches produced by acid or enzyme treatment are used as well.

Special starch produced by esterification or combined treatments are used in coatings, glues, the production of cardboard, etc.

The Stein Hall process of manufacturing corrugated cardboard employs both cooked and uncooked starch. Cooked starch adds viscosity while uncooked starch swells up as the cardboard liner passes the heating rolls, giving instant bond. Pre-swollen starch is used alone in no-carrier adhesives.

The process of drilling for oil uses starch in the suspension of excavated mud. During this process, starch is either employed alone or in combination with other stabilisers, e.g. xanthan gum. Within the textile industry, thin boiling starch has made a comeback in the competition with petrochemicals.

The addition of chemical groups to the starch chain improves the clarity and stability of the gel during cooking, mixing and freezing. These chemicals include propylene oxide, acetic acid, and metaphosphates. They form tailor-made hydrocolloids, which go into desserts, ice cream, puddings, wine gums, etc.

Starch is the cheap and reliable source of energy for the biochemical manufacturing of alcohol, enzymes and fine chemicals. When broken down by enzymes or acids it becomes the basic ingredient for producing glucose, fructose and sorbitol.

THE OCCURRENCE OF STARCH

Starch makes up the nutritive reserves of many plants. During the growing season, the green leaves collect energy from the sun. This energy is transported as a sugar solution to the starch storage cells, and the sugar is converted to starch in the form of tiny granules occupying most of the cell interior.

The conversion of sugar to starch takes place by means of enzymes. Then, the following spring, enzymes are also responsible for the re-conversion of starch to sugar - released from the seed as energy for the growing plant.

WHEAT VARIETIES

Wheat is a cereal plant of the genus Triticum of the family Gramineae (grass family). Modern wheat varieties are usually classified as winter wheat (fall-planted) and spring wheat - most of the wheat grown is winter wheat. Some ancient varieties of wheat like einkorn (T. monococcum), emmer (T. dicoccum) and spelt (T. spelta) are still being cultivated for specialty purposes. Triticum aestivum is by far the most important of all wheat species.

Flour from hard varieties derived from bread wheat (T. aestivum) contains a high gluten content and is preferred in bakery products. The hardest-kernelled wheat is durum - macaroni wheat (T. durum); it is essential for the manufacture of pasta products.

WHEAT GLUTEN

Gluten is proteins of the wheat. Gluten forms long molecules insoluble in water. This gives dough its characteristic texture and permits breads and cakes to rise because the carbon dioxide released by the yeast is trapped in the gluten superstructure.

Gluten is particular important in the manufacture of starch from wheat because gluten is a most valuable by-product representing half the turnover. In fact the starch is by some manufacturers considered the by-product and gluten the main product.

If the gluten is extracted and gently dried in hot air at moderate temperatures it maintains it's characteristics. If so it is designated "vital gluten". Vital gluten may be added as a dry powder to flour otherwise low in gluten and thereby improve the baking qualities of the flour. The Danish and Scandinavian climate favours weak wheat of poor baking qualities. The gluten content is low and the texture of the gluten is short. A remedy is mixing it with French or Canadian wheat known for their better gluten quality. As an alternative the baking characteristics may be improved by mixing it with vital gluten powder.

Commercial gluten is dried to minimum 90% dry matter and a typical composition is:

• 70 - 80 % crude protein,
• 6 - 8 % crude lipids,
• 10 - 14 % carbohydrates,
• 0.8 - 1.4 % minerals.

Gluten in general is used as a meat extender in both food and feed. The fermentation industry consumes large amounts of gluten and by acid hydrolysis it is used for production of hydrolyzed vegetable protein and glutamic acid. A gluten based meat analogue was invented by the International Starch Group. It replaces up to one third of minced meat in popular meat balls. Another invention combines emulsifiers and gluten into a spray dried powder improving both baking quality of the flour and shelf life of the bread.

WHEAT STARCH

Wheat starch granules are divided in two groups by size, B-starch (15 - 20 %) is 2 - 15 µm diameter and the larger A-starch granules (80 - 85 %) are 20 - 35 µm. B-starch is contaminated with pentosans, fibres, lipids and protein to an extent requiring special treatment in the factory

WHEAT GERM OIL

Wheat germ oil is contained at 8 - 12 % in the fresh wheat germ which is 2½ % of total grain weight.
Its fatty acid composition (%) is:

C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3
11-20% 1-6% 13-30% 44-65% 2-13%

Due to its high level of linoleic acid (C18:2) wheat germ oil is used for dietary purposes and in cosmetic preparations.
Wheat germ oil is expelled or extracted from the germ. Because the germ is removed from the endosperm during the dry milling it is not a by-product from the industrial wet milling of wheat.

RAW MATERIAL FOR STARCH

Wheat grain may be taken in as raw material as is the case with corn, but typically the starch manufacturer prefers to buy flour from a flour mill.

Composition of the wheat kernel

Bran 12½ %
Germ 2½ %
Endosperm 82 %

The number of parts by weight of flour that is produced from 100 parts of wheat is termed the extraction rate. Flour extraction ranges from 73 to 77 % resulting in an average mill feed production of about 25 %. It is apparent that the mill feed contains, in addition to the bran, a significant portion of the starchy endosperm.

Typical flour composition on dry matter basis

Moisture content: 13.5 %
Total protein content: 13 %
Fibre content: 1.0 %
Ash content: 0.75 %

The flour must be suitable for human consumption and it has to be milled to a specific particle size distribution.

STARCH SWEETENERS

Starch sweeteners are an important outlet for wheat starch and in many plants starch is not dried at all. In stead the refined A-starch slurry is further processed into starch syrups.

For wheat starch the glucose is particular important. Basic and typical units of operation are:

1. LIQUEFACTION. The refined A-starch slurry is pH-adjusted and enzymes are added. The prepared slurry is heated by direct steam in a steam jet. The liquefaction is typically a two stage process. The combination of heat and enzymes gelatinizes and thins the starch. The enzyme does the work by cutting the long starch molecules into pieces by hydrolysis. A low DE hydrolysate is formed and at this point the starch has been converted into a maltodextrin. (DE= Dextrose Equivalent).
2. SACCHARIFICATION. The low DE hydrolysate is pH and temperature adjusted once again and new enzymes added to produce glucose with a higher DE. Glucose of different composition can be made depending on the enzymes added and the process applied - even products close to pure dextrose.
3. PROTEIN FILTRATION. New technology allows cross-flow membrane filtration of the hydrolysate. By dia-filtration glucose may be recovered from the filter residue leaving a protein rich mud to be discharged as animal feed.
4. CARBON TREATMENT. The glucose hydrolysate is heated and treated with activated carbon to remove impurities and colour bodies and then filtered.
5. ION EXCHANGE. The glucose hydrolysate is demineralised with ion exchange resins in a "merry go round" arrangement. Cation resins remove various ions as sodium, calcium, traces of iron and some amino acids. Anion resins remove ions like chloride, sulphate, phosphate and most residual amino acids.
6. EVAPORATION. The refined glucose syrup is concentrated by evaporation to its final commercial dry matter content. The syrup is now ready for drumming off or for road tanker transport.
7. A MULTITUDE OF SWEETENERS. By varying the procedures a range of commercial products can be made and the pure dextrose syrups may even form basis for further processing into High Fructose Syrups utilizing sophisticated techniques like enzymatically isomerising and chromatography.

APPLICATION.

Being a pure renewable natural polymer, starch has a multitude of applications.

Commercial wheat starch is used in the manufacture of sweeteners, sizing of paper and textile and as a food thickener and stabilizer.

Nine million t per annum of starch and starch sweeteners are manufactured in the European Union and one third is originating from wheat.

In the European Union 40% of native and modified starches is consumed by the paper industry being the most important outlet at present.

Increasing amounts of grain, however, is supposed to be consumed by the new bio-fuel industry. In USA this development has already started on maize as raw material. In Europe wheat is the prime candidate.

Non-grape based wine

The term wine can sometimes include alcoholic beverages that are not grape-based. This can include wines produced from fruits like apples and elderberries, starches like rice, as well as flowers and weeds like dandelion and marijuana.

The most common, narrow definition of wine relates to the product of fermented grape juice, though it is sometimes broadened to include any beverage with a fermentation based on the conversion of a sugar solution into alcohol (fermented beverages based on hydrolyzed barley such as beer are often excluded).

Some drinks such as cider, mead and perry are also excluded from this broad definition of wine for historical reasons. In many areas of the world, the commercial use of the word "wine" is protected by law. In the European Union "wine" is legally defined only as the fermented juice of grapes.

Fruit wine

Fruit wines have traditionally been popular with home winemakers and in areas with cool climates such as North America and Scandinavia. Most fruits and berries have the potential to produce wine. However, the amount of fermentable sugars is often low and need to be supplemented by a process called chaptalization in order to have sufficient alcohol levels.

Sucrose is often added so that fruits having excessive levels of acids (usually citric or malic acid) can split the sucrose into fermentable fructose and glucose sugars. Many fruit wines suffer from a lack of natural yeast nutrients needed to promote or maintain fermentation. Winemakers can counter this with the addition of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Unlike some grape-based wines, fruit wines often do not improve with bottle age and are usually meant to be consumed within a year of bottling.

Starch wines

Sake, and other rice wines are commonly described as wine, although the process for making them is different from that of other wines, and indeed more closely resembles the production of beer.

Other wines

In the 21st century there have also been some attempts by Chinese winemakers to make wine from fish. In Scotland, one winery has experimented with making wines from vegetables such as carrots and turnip. In the United States, recipes have been published online demonstrating how wine can be made from marijuana by adding winemaking yeast to a boiled mixture of marijuana, honey, lemons and oranges.

There is palm wine from west Africa from palm tree. This is the same tree from which the red Palm oil is obtained