Non-grape based wine

The term wine can sometimes include alcoholic beverages that are not grape-based. This can include wines produced from fruits like apples and elderberries, starches like rice, as well as flowers and weeds like dandelion and marijuana.

The most common, narrow definition of wine relates to the product of fermented grape juice, though it is sometimes broadened to include any beverage with a fermentation based on the conversion of a sugar solution into alcohol (fermented beverages based on hydrolyzed barley such as beer are often excluded).

Some drinks such as cider, mead and perry are also excluded from this broad definition of wine for historical reasons. In many areas of the world, the commercial use of the word "wine" is protected by law. In the European Union "wine" is legally defined only as the fermented juice of grapes.

Fruit wine

Fruit wines have traditionally been popular with home winemakers and in areas with cool climates such as North America and Scandinavia. Most fruits and berries have the potential to produce wine. However, the amount of fermentable sugars is often low and need to be supplemented by a process called chaptalization in order to have sufficient alcohol levels.

Sucrose is often added so that fruits having excessive levels of acids (usually citric or malic acid) can split the sucrose into fermentable fructose and glucose sugars. Many fruit wines suffer from a lack of natural yeast nutrients needed to promote or maintain fermentation. Winemakers can counter this with the addition of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Unlike some grape-based wines, fruit wines often do not improve with bottle age and are usually meant to be consumed within a year of bottling.

Starch wines

Sake, and other rice wines are commonly described as wine, although the process for making them is different from that of other wines, and indeed more closely resembles the production of beer.

Other wines

In the 21st century there have also been some attempts by Chinese winemakers to make wine from fish. In Scotland, one winery has experimented with making wines from vegetables such as carrots and turnip. In the United States, recipes have been published online demonstrating how wine can be made from marijuana by adding winemaking yeast to a boiled mixture of marijuana, honey, lemons and oranges.

There is palm wine from west Africa from palm tree. This is the same tree from which the red Palm oil is obtained

Fruit wine

Fruit wines are fermented alcoholic beverages made from a variety of ingredients (other than grapes) and having a variety of flavours. Fruit wines are usually referred to by their main ingredient fruit (e.g., plum wine), since the word wine alone is often legally defined as a beverage made only from grapes. In the European Union "wine" is legally defined only as the fermented juice of grapes. The term country wine is also commonly utilized in Great Britain and the U.S. interchangeably with fruit wine to indicate any non-grape wine, and should not be confused with the French term vin de pays. In British legislation, the term made-wine is used.

Wine can be made from any sufficiently sweet food or, with addition of sucrose in the form of table sugar or honey, from other fruits and many other plant sources. This can include wines produced from fruits like apples and elderberries, starches like rice, vegetables like carrot or peapod, as well as flowers and herbs such as dandelion, elderflower, and even marijuana. The most common, narrow definition of wine relates to the product of fermented grape juice, though it is sometimes broadened to include any beverage with a fermentation based on the conversion of a sugar solution into alcohol (fermented beverages based on hydrolyzed barley such as beer are often excluded). Some drinks such as cider, mead and perry are also excluded from this broad definition of wine for historical reasons.

Fruit wines have traditionally been popular with home winemakers and in areas with cool climates such as North America and Scandinavia. Most fruits and berries have the potential to produce wine. Few foods other than grapes have the balanced quantities of sugar, acid, tannin, nutritive salts for yeast feeding and water to naturally produce a stable, drinkable wine, so most country wines are adjusted in one or more respects at fermentation. The amount of fermentable sugars is often low and need to be supplemented by a process called chaptalization in order to have sufficient alcohol levels in the finished wine. Sucrose is often added so that fruits having excessive levels of acids (usually citric or malic acid) can split the sucrose into fermentable fructose and glucose sugars. If the specific gravity of the initial solution is too high, indicating an excess of sugar, water or acidulated water may be added to adjust the specific gravity down to the winemaker's target range. Many fruit wines suffer from a lack of natural yeast nutrients needed to promote or maintain fermentation. Winemakers can counter this with the addition of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium available commercially as yeast nutrient. Like many conventional white wines, fruit wines often do not improve with bottle age and are usually meant to be consumed within a year of bottling.

The fermentation of fruit wines at home was particularly fashionable in the UK in the 1970s and was popularized in the BBC TV series The Good Life.

Ingredients

The other ingredients that give the wine its flavour and character can be fruits, flowers, herbs, etc. Examples are elderberry wine and dandelion wine. A wine made from elderberry flowers is called elder blow wine. If the flavouring ingredients are leaves or roots then the beverage is sometimes called a beer (for example, ginger beer). (Note that the beverages known as root beer, ginger beer and ginger ale are often non-alcoholic.)

If the sugar source is honey then the beverage is usually called mead; if it is apple or pear juice then the beverage is called cider or perry, respectively. Cyser is made from apples and honey.

List of fruits and plants used

Wines made from fruit: apricot banana blackberry blackcurrant blueberry cherry cloudberry cranberry elderberry feijoa or pineapple guava goji (wolfberry) gooseberry huckleberry loquat mango mangosteen

peach pear plum raspberry redcurrant rowan persimmon pineapple pomegranate quince rose hip sea-buckthorn strawberry tomato watermelon sweetsop

crowberry kiwifruit Wines made from flowers: dandelion elderflower or elder blow (made from elderberry flowers) hibiscus or jamaica Wines made from vegetables and roots: potato rhubarb parsnip Wines made from tree sap : palm wine (toddy) maple wine

Plum wine

Ume liquor, also known as "plum wine", is popular in both Japan and Korea, and is also produced in China. Umeshu , sometimes translated as "plum wine") is a Japanese alcoholic drink made by steeping green ume in shōchū , clear liquor. It is sweet and smooth. The taste and aroma of umeshu can appeal to even those people who normally dislike alcohol. A similar liquor in Korea, called maesil ju , is marketed under various brand names including Mae Hwa Su, Mae Chui Soon, and Seol Joong Mae. Both the Japanese and Korean varieties of ume liquor are available with whole ume fruits contained in the bottle.

In China, ume wine is called mei jiu .

In Taiwan, a popular post-World War II innovation on Japanese-style umeshu is the wumeijiu, or Wumei liquor , which is made by mixing Prunus mume liquor ( méijǐu), Prunus salicina liquor ( lǐjǐu), and Oolong tea liquor.

Pineapple wine

Pineapple wine is made from the juice of pineapple. Fermentation of the pineapple juice takes place in temperature controlled vats and is stopped at near dryness. The result is a soft, dry and fruity wine with an unmistakable pineapple bouquet. It is made in Hawaii by the Tedeschi Vineyards called 'Maui Blanc' located in Ulupalakua, Maui-Hawai`i, on the slopes of Haleakala. Several varieties of pineapple wine are also made in Okinawa Japan from locally produced pineapples. Its alcohol content is 11.5% by volume.

Lappish Hag's Love Potion

Lappish Hag's Love Potion (lapin eukon lemmenjuoma) is a traditional homebrewed Finnish fruit wine made from blueberries which ferment naturally with wild yeast (called the bloom) present on the skin. The drink is also known as Lappish Grandmother's Love Potion (lapin isoäidin lemmenjuoma), Lappish Mother's Love Potion (lapin äidin lemmenjuoma), or simply Lappish Love Potion (lapin lemmenjuoma).

Lappish Hag's Love Potion is made by filling a bottle with tightly interspersed un-crushed blueberries and sugar to near filling point, and then topping up with water, little by little. The bottle is left to ferment in the sunlight for about a month.

Acids in wine

The acids in wine are an important component in both winemaking and the finished product of wine. They are present in both grapes and wine, having direct influences on the color, balance and taste of the wine as well as the growth and vitality of yeasts during fermentation and protecting the wine from bacteria.

The measure of the amount of acidity in wine is known as the "Titratable Acidity" or "Total acidity", which refers to the test that yields the total of all acids present, while strength of acidity is measured according to pH with most wines having a pH rating between 2.9-3.9 pH. The lower the pH, the higher the acidity in the wine.

In wine tasting, the term "acidity" refers to the fresh, tart and sour attributes of the wine which is evaluated in relation to how well the acidity balances out the sweetness and bitter components of the wine. There are three primary acids found in wine grapes-tartaric, malic and citric. During the course of winemaking and in the finished wines acetic, butyric, lactic and succinic acid can play significant roles.

Most of the acids involved with wine are fixed acids with the notable exception of acetic acid, mostly found in vinegar, which is volatile and can contribute to the wine fault known as volatile acidity. Sometimes additional acids are used in winemaking such as ascorbic, sorbic and sulfurous acids.

Tartaric acid

Tartaric acid is, from a winemaking perspective, the most important in wine due to the prominent role it plays in maintaining the chemical stability of the wine and its color and finally in influencing the taste of the finished wine. In most plants, this organic acid is rare but it is found in significant concentrations in grape vines. Along with malic acid, and to a lesser extent citric acid, tartaric is one of the fixed acids found in wine grapes. The concentration varies depending on grape variety and the soil content of the vineyard. Some varieties, such as Palomino, are naturally deposed to having high levels of tartaric acids while Malbec and Pinot noir generally have lower levels. During flowering, there are high levels of tartaric acid concentrated in the grape flowers and then young berries. As the vine progresses through ripening, tartaric does not get metabolized through respiration like malic acid so that the levels of tartaric acid in the grape vines remains relatively consistent throughout the ripening process.

Less than half of the tartaric acid found grape is free standing, with the majority of the concentration present as potassium acid salt. During fermentation, these tartrates bind with the lees, pulp debris and precipitated tannins and pigments. While there is some variance among grape varieties and wine regions, generally about half of the deposits are soluble in the alcoholic mixture of wine. The crystallization of these tartrates can happen at unpredictable times and in a wine bottle appear like broken glass though they are in fact harmless. Winemakers will often put the wine through cold stabilization where it is exposed temperatures below freezing to encourage the tartrates to crystallize and precipitate out of the wine.

Malic acid

Malic acid, along with tartaric acid, is one of the principle organic acids found in wine grapes. It is found in nearly every fruit and berry plant but its most often associated with green apples from which flavor it most readily projects in wine. Its name comes from the Latin malum meaning "apple". In the grape vine, malic acid is involved in several processes which are essential for the health and sustainability of the vine. Its chemical structure allows it to participate in enzymatic reactions that transport energy throughout the vine. The concentration of malic acids varies depending on the grape variety with some varieties, like Barbera, Carignan and Sylvaner being naturally deposed to high levels. The levels of malic acid in grape berries are at their peak just before veraison when they can be found in concentrations as high as 20 g/l. As the vine progresses through the ripening stage, malic acid is metabolized in the process of respiration and by harvest could be as low as 1 to 9 g/l. The respiratory loss of malic acid is more pronounced in warmer climates. When all the malic acid is used up in the grape it is considered "over-ripe" or senescent. Winemakers must compensate for this loss by manually adding acid at the winery in a process known as acidification.

Malic acid can be further reduced during the winemaking process through malolactic fermentation or MLF. In this process bacteria convert the stronger (lower pH) malic acid into the softer (higher pH) lactic acid. The bacteria behind this process can be found naturally in the winery, in cooperages which make oak wine barrels that will house a population of the bacteria or it can be manually introduced by the winemaker with a cultured specimen. For some wines, the conversion of malic into lactic acid can be beneficial, especially if the wine has excessive levels of malic. For other wines, such as Chenin blanc and Riesling, it produce off flavors in the wine (such as the buttery smell of diacetyl) that would not be appealing for that variety. In general, red wines are more often put through MLF than whites which means that there is a higher likihood of finding malic acid in white wines (though there are notable exceptions like oaked Chardonnay which is often put through MLF).

Lactic acid

A much milder acid than tartaric and malic, lactic acid is often associated with "milky" flavors in wine and is the primary acid of yogurt and sauerkraut. It is produced during winemaking by lactic acid bacteria (known as LAB) which includes three genera-Oenococcus, Pediococcus and Lactobacillus. These bacterium convert both sugar and malic acid into lactic acid, the later through a process known as malolactic fermentation or MLF. The process of converting malic into lactic acid can be beneficial for some wines, adding complexity and softening the harshness of malic acidity but it can generate off flavors and turbidity in others. Some strains of LAB can produce biogenic amines like histamine, tyramine and putrescine which may be a cause of red wine headaches in some wine drinkers. Winemakers wishing to control or prevent MLF can use sulfur dioxide to stun the bacteria. Racking the wine quickly off its lees will also help control the bacteria since lees are a vital food source for them. They must also be very careful of what wine barrels and winemaking equipment that the wine is exposed to because of the bacteria's ability to deeply embed themselves within wood fibers. A wine barrel that has completed one successful malolactic fermentation will almost always induce MLF in every wine that gets stored in it from then on.

Citric acid

While very common in citrus fruits, such as limes, citric acid is found only in very minute quantities in wine grapes. It often has a concentration about 1/20 that of tartaric acid. The citric acid most commonly found in wine are commercially produced acid supplements derived from fermenting sucrose solutions. These inexpensive supplements can be used by winemakers in acidification to boost the total acidity of the wine. It is used less frequently than tartaric and malic due to aggressive citric flavors that it can add to the wine. When citric acid is added, it is always done after primary alcohol fermentation has been completed due to the tendency of yeast to convert citric into acetic acid. In the European Union, use of citric acid for acidification is prohibited but limited use of citric acid is permitted for removing excess iron and copper from the wine if potassium ferrocyanide is not available.

Other acids

Acetic acid is a two-carbon fatty acid produced in wine during or after the fermentation period. It is the most volatile of the primary acids associated with wine and is responsible for the sour taste of vinegar. During fermentation, activity by yeast cells naturally produce a small amount of acetic acid. If the wine is exposed to oxygen, acetobacter bacteria will convert the ethanol alcohol into acetic acid. This process is known as the "acetification" of wine and is the primary process behind wine degradation into vinegar. Excessive amounts of acetic acid is also considered a wine fault. A taster's sensitivity to acetic acid will vary but most people can detect excessive amounts at around 600 mg/l.

Ascorbic acid, also known as vitamin C, is found in young wine grapes prior to veraison but is rapidly lost throughout the ripening process. In winemaking it is used with sulfur dioxide as an anti-oxidant to prevent oxidation, often added during the bottling process for white wines. In the European Union, use of ascorbic acid as an additive is limited to 150 mg/l.

Butyric acid is a bacteria induced wine fault that can cause a wine to smell of spoiled Camembert or rancid butter.

Sorbic acid is a winemaking additive used often in sweet wines as a preservative against fungi, bacteria and yeast growth. Unlike sulfur dioxide, it does not hinder the growth of the lactic acid bacteria. In the European Union there is a limitation on the amount of sorbic acid that can be added-no more than 200 mg/l. Most humans have a detection threshold of 135 mg/l, with some having a sensitivity to detect its presence at 50 mg/l. Sorbic acid can produce off-flavors and aromas which can be described as "rancid". When lactic acid bacteria metabolizes sorbates in the wine, it creates a wine fault that is most recognizable by an aroma of crushed Pelargonium geranium leaves.

Succinic acid is most commonly found in wine but can also be present in trace amounts in ripened grapes. While concentration varies amount grape varieties, it is usually found in higher levels with red wine grapes. The acid is created as a by-product of the metabolization of nitrogen by yeast cells during fermentation. The combination of succinic acid with one molecule of ethanol will create the ester mono-ethyl succinate that is responsible for a mild, fruit aroma in wines.

Effects on wine

As red wine ages, the harsh tannins of its youth gradually give way to a softer mouthfeel. An inky dark color will eventually fade to a light brick red. These changes occur due to the complex chemical reactions of the phenolic compounds of the wine. In processed that begin during fermentation and continue after bottle, these compounds bind together and aggregate.

Eventually these particles reach a certain size where they are too large to stay suspended in the solution and the precipitate out. The presence of visible sediment in a bottle will usually indicate a mature wine. The resulting wine, with this loss of tannins and pigment, will have a paler color and taste softer, less astringent. The sediment, while harmless, can have an unpleasant taste and is often separated from the wine by decanting.

During the aging process, the perception of a wine's acidity may change even though the total measurable amount of acidity is more or less constant throughout a wine's life. This is due to the esterification of the acids, combining with alcohols in complex array to form esters. In addition to making a wine taste less acidic, these esters introduce a range of possible aromas.

Eventually the wine may age to a point where other components of the wine (such as a tannins and fruit) are less noticeable themselves, which will then bring back a heightened perception of wine acidity. Other chemical processes that occur during aging include the hydrolysis of flavor precursors which detach themselves from glucose molecules and introduce new flavor notes in the older wine and Aldehydes become oxidized.

The interaction of certain phenolics develop what is known as tertiary aromas which are different from the primary aromas that are derived from the grape and during fermentation.

As a wine starts to mature, its bouquet will become more developed and multi-layered. While a taster may be able to pick out a few fruit notes in a young wine, a more complex wine will have several distinct fruit, floral, earthy, mineral and oak derived notes. The lingering finish of a wine will lengthen.

Eventually the wine will reach a point of maturity, when it is said to be at its "peak". This is the point when the wine has the maximum amount of complexity, most pleasing mouthfeel and softening of tannins and has not yet started to decay. When this point will occur is not yet predictable and can vary from bottle to bottle. If a wine is aged for too long, it will start to descend into decrepitude where the fruit tastes hollow and weak while the wine's acidity becomes dominant.

History Of Wine

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest production of wine, made by fermenting grapes, took place in sites in Georgia and Iran, from as early as 6000 BC. These locations are all within the natural area of the European grapevine Vitis vinifera.

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were used together with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China as early as 7000 BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan were found to contain traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, could not be ruled out. If these beverages, which seem to be the precursors of rice wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, these grapes were of any of the several dozen indigenous wild species of grape in China, rather than from Vitis vinifera, which were introduced into China some 6000 years later.

The oldest known evidence of wine production in Europe is dated to 4500 BC and comes from archaeological sites in Greece. The same sites also contain the world’s earliest evidence of crushed grapes. In Ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner. Five of these amphoras were designated as from the King's personal estate with the sixth listed as from the estate of the royal house of Aten. Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang, dating from the second and first millennia BC.

In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church was a staunch supporter of wine since it was necessary for the celebration of Mass. In places such as Germany, beer was banned and considered pagan and barbaric, while wine consumption was viewed as civilised and a sign of conversion to Christianity. Monks in France made wine for years, storing it underground in caves to age. There is an old English recipe which survived in various forms (allowed by the King) until the nineteenth century for refining white wine using Bastard—bad or tainted bastardo wine. Wine was forbidden during the Islamic Golden Age, until Geber and other Muslim chemists pioneered its distillation for cosmetic and medical uses.

Wine

Wine is an alcoholic beverage often made of fermented grape juice. The natural chemical balance of grapes is such that they can ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes or other nutrients. Wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast which consume the sugars found in the grapes and convert them into alcohol. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are used depending on the types of wine being produced.

Although other fruits such as apples and berries can also be fermented, the resultant wines are normally named after the fruit from which they are produced (for example, apple wine or elderberry wine) and are generically known as fruit wine or country wine (not to be confused with the French term vin du pays). Others, such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer and spirit more than wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these cases, the use of the term "wine" is a reference to the higher alcohol content, rather than production process. The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.

Wine has a rich history dating back to around 6000 BC and is thought to have originated in areas now within the borders of Georgia and Iran. Wine probably appeared in Europe at about 4500 BC in what is now Bulgaria and Greece, and was very common in ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Wine has also played an important role in religion throughout history. The Greek god Dionysos and the Roman equivalent Bacchus represented wine, and the drink is also used in Christian and Jewish ceremonies such as the Eucharist and Kiddush.

The word "wine" derives from the Proto-Germanic "*winam," an early borrowing from the Latin vinum, "wine" or "(grape) vine," itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o- (cf. Hittite: wiyana ,Lycian: Oino, Ancient Greek οῖνος - oînos, Aeolic Greek ϝοίνος - woinos).Similar words for wine or grapes are found in the Semitic languages (cf. Arabic ﻭﻳﻦ wayn) and in Georgian (ğvino); some consider the term to be a wanderwort, or "wandering word".

Aroma of wine

It is through the aromas of wine that wine is actually tasted. The human tongue is limited to the primary tastes perceived by taste receptors on the tongue-acidity, bitterness, saltiness, sweetness and umami.

The wide array of fruit, earthy, floral, herbal, mineral and woodsy flavor perceived in wine are derived from aroma notes interpreted by the olfactory bulb. In wine tasting, wine is often smelled before being drunk in order to identify some components of the wine that may be present.

Different terms are used to describe what is being smelled. The most basic term is aroma which generally refers to a "pleasant" smell as opposed to odor which refers to an unpleasant smell or possible wine fault. The term aroma maybe further distinguished from bouquet which generally refers to the smells that arise from the chemical reactions of fermentation and aging of the wine.

Aroma vs bouquet

In professional wine tasting, there is generally a distinction made between "aromas" and a wine's "bouquet" while in casual wine tasting these two terms are used interchangeably. An aroma refers to the smells unique to the grape variety and are most readily demonstrated in a varietal wine--such as lychees with Gewürztraminer or black currant with Cabernet Sauvignon. These are smells that are commonly associated with a young wine.

As a wine ages chemical reactions among acids, sugars, alcohols and phenolic compounds create new smells that are known as a wine's bouquet. These can include honey in an aged Sauternes or truffles in a Pinot noir. The term bouquet can also be expanded to include the smells derived from fermentation and exposure to oak.

In Burgundy, the aromas of wines are sub-divided into three categories-primary, secondary and tertiary aromas. Primary aromas are those specific to the grape variety itself. Secondary aromas are those derived from fermentation and oak aging. Tertiary aromas are those that develop through bottled aging.

Components of a wine's aroma

Within wine there are volatile and non-volatile compounds that contributes to the make up of a wine's aroma. During the fermentation and for the first few months of a wine's existence, chemical reactions among these compounds occur frequently and a wine's aroma will change more rapidly during this period than at any other point.

As a wine ages and mature, changes and developments in aroma will continue to take place but at a slower and more gradual pace. Volatile aroma compounds are present in the skin and juice of a grape berry and will vary in composition according to the individual grape variety.

It is theorized that the Vitis vine developed these compounds as a evolutionary tool to aid in procreation by attracting insects to assist with pollination and birds and other animals to eat the berries and disperse the seeds. The diverse spectrum of aromas associated with individual grape varieties is a reflection of the vine's adaptation to ecological conditions and competition among other plants.

The majority of volatile compounds responsible for aroma combine with sugars in the wine to form odorless glycosides. Through the process of hydrolysis, caused by enzymes or acids in the wine, they revert into an aromatic form. The act of tasting wine is essentially the act of smelling these vaporized aroma compounds.

Olfactory receptors cells, each sensitive to a different aromas, pick up these compounds and transfers the information to the brain by way of the olfactory bulb. In the 1980s there was renewed focus in studying the correlation between aroma/flavor compounds in grapes and the resulting quality of wine. Scientists were able to use chromatograph-mass spectrometers to identify volatile aroma compounds in various grape varieties.

Study of the compounds responsible for aroma and flavor, as well as their correlation with a wine's quality, is ongoing. As understanding of these compounds grows, there is concern that wines in the future could be "manipulated" through the use of chemical additives to add complexity and additional aromas to wine (such as creating a manufactured perfume) .

In 2004, a winery in South Africa was found to have added illegal flavoring to their Sauvignon blanc to enhance the aroma. Viticultural studies have focused on how aroma compounds develop in the grapes during the annual growth cycle of the vine and how viticultural techniques such as canopy management may contribute to developing desirable aromatics in the wine.

Identified aroma compounds

Some of the identified aroma compound include the following:

• Methoxypyrazine-grassy, herbaceous aroma compound associated with Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc.
• Monoterpenes-responsible for the floral aromatics of varieties like Gewürztraminer, Muscat and Riesling. Includes geraniol, linalool and nerol.
• Norisoprenoids-Carotenoid derived aromatic compound that includes megastigmatrienone which produces some of the spice notes associated with Chardonnay and zingerone responsible for the different spice notes associated with Syrah. Other norisoprenoids include raspberry ketone which produces some of the raspberry aromas associated with red wine, damascenone which produces some of the rose oil aromas associated with Pinot noir and vanillin.
• Thiols-sulfur contain compounds that can produce an aroma of garlic and onion that is considered a wine fault (mercaptans). They have also been found to contribute to some of the varietal aromas associated with Cabernet Sauvignon, Gewürztraminer, Merlot, Muscat, Petit Manseng, Pinot blanc, Pinot gris, Riesling, Scheurebe, Semillon and Sylvaner.

Esters

Some of the aromas perceived in wine are from esters created by the reaction of acids and alcohol in the wine. Esters can develop during fermentation, with the influence of yeast, or later during aging by chemical reactions.

The precise yeast strain used during fermentation and temperature are two of the strongest indicators of what kind of esters will develop and helps explain partially why Chardonnay grown in the same vineyard but made by two different producers could have different aromatics.

During bottle aging hydrogen ions, found in higher concentration in low pH (high acid) wines, serves as a catalyst in the formation of esters from acids and alcohols present in the wine. However, at the same time these hydrogen ions encourage esters to also split apart back into acids and alcohols.

These two counter-balancing acts gradually inch a wine closer to a state of equilibrium where there is equal parts alcohol, acids, esters and water (a by product of the reactions). During this period the ester influenced bouquet of the wine is constantly changing due to the concentration, formulation and splitting of different esters. This is partly the reason why a wine will have one set of aromas at one time and other aromas later in its life.

In wine tasting

The sense of smell and detecting the aromas in wine is the primary means through which wine is tasted and evaluated. Prior to tasting the wine, wine drinkers will often smell the wine in the glass. Large bowl glasses with tapered openings, some of which are specifically designed to enhance aromatics of different wines, can assist in capturing more aromatics within the glass for the drinker to detect.

Wines served at warmer temperature will be more aromatic than wine served cooler due to heats ability to increase the volatility of aromatic compounds in the wine. Swirling, or aerating, the wine will introduce more air molecules into the wine which can capture the aroma molecules and carry them up to the nose. Some subtle aromatics can be overwhelmed by more dominant aromatics that are arise after swirling so most professional tasters will sniff the wine briefly first before swirling.

The closer the nose is to the wine, even right inside the glass, the greater chances of aromatics being captured. A series of short, quick sniffs versus one long inhale will also maximize the likelihood of aromatics being detected. The human nose starts to "fatigue" after around six seconds and so a pause maybe needed between sniffs.

When wine is sipped, it is warmed in the mouth and mixes with saliva to vaporize the volatile aroma compounds. These compounds are then inhaled "retro-nasally" through the back of the mouth to where it is received by nearly five million nerve cells.

The average human can be trained to distinguish thousands of smells but can usually only name a handful at a time when presented with many aromas. This phenomenon, known as the "tip of the nose phenomenon", is countered when a person is giving a list of possible choices through which they can often positively identify the aroma.

Professional wine tasters will often mentally cycle through a list of potential aromas (and may use visual aids like the aroma wheel developed by Ann C. Noble of University of California, Davis) until one choice stands out and can be identified in the wine.

Detecting an aroma is only part of wine tasting. The next step is to describe or communicate what that aroma is and it is in this step that the subjective nature of wine tasting appears. Different individuals have their own unique way of describing familiar scents and aromas based on their own unique experiences.

Furthermore there are varying levels of sensitivity and recognition thresholds among humans of some aromatic compounds. This is why one taster may describe different aromas and flavors than another taster sampling the very same wine.

What wine can age?

Despite the well known saying that "All wine improves with age", only a few wines will actually have the ability to significantly improve with age. Master of Wine Jancis Robinson notes that only around the top 10% of all red wine and top 5% of all white wines can improve significantly enough with age to make drinking more enjoyable at 5 years of age than at 1 year of age.

Additionally, Robinson estimates, only the top 1% of all wine has the ability to improve significantly after more than a decade. It is her belief that more wine is consumed too old, rather than too young, and that the great majority of wines start to lose appeal and fruitiness after 6 months in the bottle.

In general, wines with a low pH (such as Pinot noir and Sangiovese) have a greater capability of aging. With red wines, a high level of flavor compounds, such as phenolics (most notably tannins), will increase the likelihood that a wine will be able to age. Wines with high levels of phenols include Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo and Syrah.

The white wines with the longest aging potential tends to be those with a high amount of extract and acidity. The acidity in white wines plays a similar role that tannins have with red wines in acting as a preservative. The process of making white wines, which include little to no skin contact, means that white wines have a significantly fewer amounts of phenolic compounds (though barrel fermentation and oak aging can impart some phenols). Similarly, the minimal skin contact with rosé wine limits their aging potential.

After aging at the winery most wood-aged Ports, Sherries, Vins doux naturels, Vins de liqueur, basic level Ice wines and sparkling wines are bottled when the producer feels that they are ready to be consumed. These wines are ready to drink upon release and will not benefit much from aging. Vintage Ports and other bottled-aged Ports & Sherries will benefit from some additional aging, as can vintage Champagne.

Wines with little to no aging potential

A guideline provided by Master of Wine Jancis Robinson

• German QBAs
• Asti and Moscato Spumante
• Rosé and blush wines like White Zinfandel
• Branded wines like Yellow Tail, Mouton Cadet, etc
• European table wine
• American jug & box wine
• Inexpensive varietals (with the possible exception of Cabernet Sauvignon)
• The majority of Vin de pays
• All Nouveau wines
• Vermouth
• Basic Sherry, Ports

Wines with some aging potential

A guideline provided by Master of Wine Jancis Robinson. Note that vintage, wine region and winemaking style can influence a wine's aging potential so Robinson's suggestion of years are very rough estimates of the most common examples of these wines.

• Botrytized wines (5–25 yrs)
• Chardonnay (2–6 yrs)
• Riesling (2–30 yrs)
• Hungarian Furmint (3–25 yrs)
• Loire Valley Chenin blanc (4–30 yrs)
• Hunter Valley Semillon (6–15 yrs)
• Cabernet Sauvignon (4–20 yrs)
• Merlot (2–10 yrs)
• Nebbiolo (4–20 yrs)
• Pinot noir (2–8 yrs)
• Sangiovese (2–8 yrs)
• Syrah (4–16 yrs)
• Zinfandel (2–6 yrs)
• Classified Bordeaux (8–25 yrs)
• Grand Cru Burgundy (8–25 yrs)
• Aglianico from Taurasi (4–15 yrs)
• Baga from Bairrada (4–8 yrs)
• Hungarian Kadarka (3–7 yrs)
• Bulgarian Melnik (3–7 yrs)
• Croatian Plavac Mali (4–8 yrs)
• Russian Saperavi (3–10 yrs)
• Madiran Tannat (4–12 yrs)
• Spanish Tempranillo (2–8 yrs)
• Greek Xynomavro (4–10 yrs)

Factors and influences

The ratio of sugars, acids and phenolics to water is a key determination of how well a wine can age. The less water in the grapes prior to harvest, the more likely the resulting wine will have some aging potential. Grape variety, climate, vintage and viticultural practice come into play here.

Grape varieties with thicker skins, from a dry growing season where little irrigation was used and yields were kept low will have less water and a higher ratio of sugar, acids and phenolics. The process of making Eisweins, where water is removed from the grape during pressing as frozen ice crystals, has a similar effect of decreasing the amount of water and increasing aging potential.

In winemaking, the duration of maceration or skin contact will influence how much phenolic compounds are leached from skins into the wine. Pigmented tannins, anthocyanins, colloids, tannin-polysaccharides and tannin-proteins not only influence a wine's resulting color but also act as preservatives. During fermentation adjustment to a wine's acid levels can be made with wines with lower pH having more aging potential.

Exposure to oak either during fermentation or after during barrel aging will introduce more phenolic compounds to the wines. Prior to bottling, excessive fining or filtering of the wine could strip the wine of some phenolic solids and may lessen a wine's ability to age.

The storage condition of the bottled wine will influence a wine's aging. Vibrations and heat fluctuations can hasten a wine's deterioration and cause adverse effect on the wines. In general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops. On average, the rate of chemical reactions in wine double with each 18°F (8°C) increase in temperature.

Wine expert Karen MacNeil, recommend keeping wine intended for aging in a cool area with a constant temperature around 55°F (13°C). Wine can be stored at temperatures as high as 69°F (20°C) without long term negative effect. Professor Cornelius Ough of the University of California, Davis believes that wine could be exposed to temperatures as high as 120°F (49°C) for a few hours and not be damaged.

However, most experts believe that extreme temperature fluctuations (such as repeated transferring a wine from a warm room to a cool refrigerator) would be detrimental to the wine. The ultra-violet rays of direct sunlight should also be avoided because of the free radicals that can develop in the wine and result in oxidation.

Wines packaged in large format bottles, such as magnums and 3 liter Jeroboams, seem to age more slowly than wines packaged in regular 750 ml bottles or half bottles. This may be because of the greater proportion of oxygen exposed to the wine during the bottle process. T

he advent of alternative wine closures to cork, such as screw caps and synthetic corks have opened up recent discussions on the aging potential of wines sealed with these alternative closures. Currently there is no conclusive results and the topic is the subject of ongoing research.

Bottle sickness

One of the short-term aging needs of wine is a period where the wine is considered "sick" due to the trauma and volatility of the bottling experience. During bottling some oxygen is exposed to the wine, causing a domino effect of chemical reaction with various components of the wine. The time it takes for the wine to settle down and have the oxygen fully dissolve and integrate with the wine is considered its period of "bottle shock".

During this time the wine could taste drastically different than it did prior to bottling or how it will taste after the wine has settled. While many modern bottling lines try to treat the wine as gently as possible and utilize inert gases to minimize the amount of oxygen exposure, all wine goes through some period of bottle shock. The length of this period will vary with each individual wine.

Dumb phase

During the course of aging a wine may slip into a "dumb phase" where its aromas and flavors are very muted. In Bordeaux this phase is called the age ingrat or "difficult age" and is likened to a teenager going through adolescence. The cause or length of time that this "dumb phase" will last is not yet fully understood and seems to vary from bottle to bottle.

Aging of wine

The aging of wine, and its ability to potentially improve in quality, distinguishes wine from most other consumable goods. While wine is perishable and capable of deteriorating, complex chemical reactions involving a wine's sugars, acids and phenolic compounds (such as tannins) can alter the aroma, color, mouthfeel and taste of the wine in a way that may be more pleasing to the taster.

The ability of a wine to age is influenced by many factors including grape variety, vintage, viticultural practices, wine region and winemaking style. The condition that the wine is kept in after bottling can also influence how well a wine ages and may require significant time and financial investment.

History of aging wine

The Ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the potential of aged wines. In Greece, early examples of dried "straw wines" were noted for their ability to age due to their high sugar contents. These wines were stored in sealed earthenware amphorae and kept for many years. In Rome, the most sought after wines - Falernian and Surrentine - were prized for their ability to age for decades.

In the Book of Luke, it is noted that "old wine" was valued over "new wine". The Greek physician Galen wrote that the "taste" of aged wine was desirable and that this could be accomplished by heating or smoking the wine though, in Galen's opinion, these artificially aged wines were not as healthy to consume as naturally aged wines.

Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, appreciation for aged wine was virtually non-existent. Most of the wines produced in northern Europe were light bodied, pale in color and with low alcohol. These wines did not have much aging potential and barely lasted a few months before they rapidly deteriorated into vinegar.

The older a wine got the cheaper its price became as merchants eagerly sought to rid themselves of aging wine. By the 16th century, sweeter and more alcoholic wines (like Malmsey and Sack) were being made in the Mediterranean and gaining attention for their aging ability. Similarly, Riesling from Germany with its combination of acidity and sugar were also demonstrating their ability to age. In 17th century two innovations occurred that radically changed the wine industry's view on aging.

One was the development of the cork and bottle which allowed producers to package and store wine in a virtually air-tight environment. The second was the growing popularity of fortifying wines such as Port, Madeira and Sherries. The added alcohol was found to act as a preservative, allowing wines to survive long sea voyages to England, The Americas and the East Indies. The English, in particular, were growing in their appreciation of aged wines like Port and Claret from Bordeaux.

Demand for matured wines had a pronounced effect on the wine trade. For producers, the cost and space of storing barrels or bottles of wine was prohibitive so a merchant class evolved with warehouses and the finances to facilitate aging wines for a longer period of time. In regions like Bordeaux, Oporto and Burgundy, this situation dramatically increased the balance of power towards the merchant classes.

Artificial aging

There is a long history of man using artificial means to try to accelerate the natural aging process. In Ancient Rome a smoke chamber known as a fumarium was used to enhance the flavor of wine through artificial aging. Amphorae were placed in the chamber, which was built on top of a heated hearth, in order to impart a smoky flavor in the wine that also seemed to sharpen the acidity.

The wine would sometimes come out of the fumarium with a paler color just like aged wine. Modern winemaking techniques like micro-oxygenation can have the side effect of artificially aging the wine. In the production of Madeira and rancio wines, the wines are deliberating exposed to excessive temperatures to accelerate the maturation of the wine.

Other techniques used to artificially age wine (with inconclusive results on their effectiveness) include shaking the wine, exposing it to radiation, magnetism or ultra-sonic waves. More recently, experiments with artificial aging through high-voltage electricity have produced results above the remaining techniques, as assessed by a panel of wine tasters.

Wine Gifts - Elegant, Thoughtful & Elite

Wine gifts are considered as one of the best gifts for men. They come in a variety of tastes, vintages, colors, wrappings, baskets, labels, corkscrews, stoppers, etc. Many types of wines are available in the market and a variety of vintage wines are sent as gifts. Sending a wine gift is considered elegant and reflects upon the thoughtfulness of the sender of the gift. Wine gifts have become a symbol of elite gifting and hence are on the rise.

Generally four types of vintage wines are considered best for gifting for anniversaries, birthdays, diamond weddings, retirements and other special occasions. They are Madeira, Armagnac, Sauterne and Port. Madeira is a fortified wine. It has a long history, it was used to toast the American Declaration of Independence. It does not go bad with changes in temperature and can be stored up to 200 years.

Armagnac is in essence a brandy and is made from distilled white wine in Bordeaux, France. Sauterne is a type of sweet wine distilled in an area near Bordeaux named Sauterne. Sauterne can be stored up to 100 years. The alcoholic content of this wine is less compared to other wines. It is sweeter than other wines due to its sugar content.

Port wine is a fortified wine made in many different styles. They are stored in oak casks up to 100 years. It may be noted that the wines are stored for a long time in special containers in special conditions for them to improve or cure and once the bottle is opened it is to be consumed within a day or up to a week depending upon the type of wine. There are wines other than the ones mentioned above like champagnes, red table wines, malt scotch whiskies and “celebrity wines” which are also gifted.

Wine gifts are generally given in a wine basket along with lobsters or other sea foods depending upon the taste of the recipient. Wines also have a proper serving temperature which vary according to the type of wine and is written on the bottle. Wine gifts are wrapped in attractive wrappings and sometimes designer cork lifters and wine stoppers are also gifted. An assortment of wine related gifts are available in the market like crystal ice buckets, ice tongs, crystal glasses, wine racks, wine cabinets, wine furniture, wine decanters, wine totes, wine bags etc.

With the advent of internet wine gifts can be purchased online and are delivered on required date to the recipient. Sending gifts by road works out much cheaper than sending by air, hence booking in advance is more cost effective. When the recipient’s wine taste is not known, presenting a wine gift certificate is better as the recipient will choose from an array of wines according to his liking on the company’s website.

There are many websites and companies providing gift certificates and door delivery. The wine gifts are available in a wide range of costs ranging from under 35$ to over 100$. Some companies customize the label on the wine as per order. Wine gift deliveries are not made to hospital patients and there are laws in different states on wine gift delivery.

Wine for your Valentine

The month of February is the month to show your loved ones how special they truly are. Of course we should show appreciation every day but in reality we don't. It is not because we don't care or we don't want to. The fact of the matter is that we are often so caught up in our everyday lives that we may forget to appreciate the ones that are near and dear to us. But it is never too late! We know you can't make up for lost time but you can start to show your appreciation on Valentine's Day.

Valentine's Day is one of the most celebrated occasions of the year. People all over the world shower their loved ones with greeting cards, chocolates, flowers, special dinners, and gifts but why not surprise your special someone with an amazing wine as well? Aside from sending the usual gifts, send something a little sweeter such as wine for your Valentine. Why buy wine for your Valentine? If you choose the perfect wine, it will start the night perfectly and you won't want it to end.

Wine is romantic and the characteristics of a romantic wine can be the color, sugar content, notes of chocolates or flowers, or the name that translates love. Health experts say a benefit of drinking wine helps lower heart disease and the reason for that is because wine is made of grapes. Grapes have lots of antioxidants that will help unclog your arteries and help raise good cholesterol while preventing bad cholesterol to form. So not only is wine romantic and complements a meal, it also adds health benefits to the heart. And to find out which wine suits the recipient best, it is suggested that you ask a wine expert. Buying that fabulous wine doesn't mean you need to dig deep into your pockets. You can always find great bargains online or at in-store retailers.

Buying wine in-store has its benefits as you will be face-to-face with a wine expert. You can ask questions and this interaction will be personalized to help you find what you're looking for. If you don't know where to go for wine stores, I often hear several wine stores being mentioned and they include Aster Wine & Spirits, Union Square Wine & Spirits, and Best Cellars. If you like the idea of shopping for wine in-store, try to see if they have weekly specials so you can save. For the above mentioned stores, you can always go to CitySearch.com to find their business information or more wine stores.

For online wine sites such as Wine.com, WineWeb.com, and WineEnthusiast.com, their experts are ready to answer all your questions as well. You can reach a customer care representative through e-mail or telephone while in the comfort of your own home. Another benefit from purchasing wine online is that you can find wine to be less costly. If you are looking to save money and want a fabulous wine to surprise your Valentine at the same time, you can always find online promotions, discount codes, and coupons. Good luck to all of you finding that perfect wine in time for Valentine's Day. Enjoy and take care!

Wine History - When the cork met the bottle

The role of the Church in the production and marketing of wine declined with the Reformation, particularly in northern Europe, but this did not convulse the wine world half as much as the discovery of the usefulness of corks about a century later. For the first time since the Roman empire, wine could now be stored and aged in bottles.

Throughout the Middle Ages wine had been kept in casks which had presented a dual handicap: first, too long kept in wood could rob a wine of all its fruit; second, once the cask was opened the wine inevitably deteriorated unless drunk within a few days. The bottle, with its smaller capacity, solved the former problem by providing a neutral, non-porous material which allowed wine to age in a different subtler way and removed the latter problem by providing sealed containers of a manageable size for a single session’s drinking.

However, the cork and bottle revolution was not an instant success; bottles were then so bulbous they would only stand upright which meant the corks eventually dried out and as a consequence let in air. But, by the mid 18th century, longer, flat-sided bottles were designed which would lie down, their corks kept moist by contact with the wine.

As a result wine making now took on a new dimension. It became worthwhile for a winemaker to try and excel, wines from particular plots of land could be compared for their qualities, and the most exciting could be classified and separated from the more mundane plot wines. As a result today’s great names of Bordeaux, Burgundy and the Rhine first began to be noticed.

In the early 19th century, Europe seemed one massive vineyard. In Italy 80% of people were earning their living from wine and in France there were vast plantings rolling southwards from Paris. Also the vine had moved abroad thanks to explorers, colonists and missionaries. It went to Latin America with the Spaniards, South Africa with French Huguenots, and to Australia with the British. Could anything stop this tide of wine expansion?

Well, yes and it came in the form of an aphid called phylloxera, that fed on and destroyed vine roots. It came from America in the 1860’s, and by the early 20th century, had destroyed all Europe’s vineyards and most of the rest of the world’s as well. The solution was to graft the vulnerable European vine, vitis vinifera, onto the phylloxera-resistant American rootstock, vitis riparia, naturally a very expensive effort.

The most immediate effect in Europe was that only the best sites were replanted and the total area under vines shrank drastically as a result. Elsewhere the havoc wrought was comparable and vineyard acreage is only now expanding to old original sites destroyed over a century ago.

The 20th century brought further change as science and technology revolutionised viticulture and wine making. But despite the chemical formulae and computerised wineries, the grape retains its magic and allure that attracts wine enthusiasts from all over the world.

Wine labels - Peeling off the mystery

One of the most baffling subjects that confronts the budding wine enthusiast is the deciphering of the myriad of information contained on the bottle label, especially that contained on wine bottles from European countries.

Once the basic rules are taken on board it becomes a lot simpler. Whereas most New World countries put details of the grape varieties on the front label, a lot of European regions do not, and as this is the most basic of information for taste purposes why is this the case?

European winemakers tend to put more emphasis on the place of origin. For instance, a Bordeaux red typically wont say ‘Cabernet’ or ‘Merlot’ on the front label, but instead have the name of the chateau where it was made, and usually the part of Bordeaux where it was made, for example Haut-Medoc. Similarly a Sancerre is totally Sauvignon Blanc, but an in depth analysis of the label will leave you none the wiser. For the French the important factor is that the wine comes from Sancerre in the Loire valley and for them it is inbred knowledge that white Sancerre is Sauvignon Blanc.

Moving south to Spain, red Rioja declares itself as Rioja on the label, not Tempranillo the grape variety used, whilst in Italy most Tuscan reds have no information on the Sangiovese grape that is most widely used in these wines. Given this mish-mash of information it is no wonder that many of us head for that bottle with the label announcing it is a Chardonnay Viognier from the Ironstone Vineyard of California.

It is clear then that the Europeans believe the most important factor influencing a wine’s character is the soil, climate and culture of the area where the grape is grown and this is particularly important to single-vineyard wines who make the most of capturing the essence of a particular area of land.

So whereas a French winemaker will see his wine as reflecting the character of a particular region, a New World winemaker mad about grape varieties will consider that soil is just the growing medium in which the fruit grows, and that the grape variety and hard work in the winery are what really counts.

Today these two opposing approaches to wine labelling are moving closer together with New World producers emphasising their regionality and its characteristics, whilst European, even the parochial French winemakers possibly prompted by the wholesalers and the supermarkets are labelling their wines more clearly.

Wine Labels Decoded

Even for the avid wine drinker, deciding on a bottle of wine can be a daunting task with so many varieties of wine on the market today. Wine labels don’t help either with the various terms in foreign languages and the small print. Sometimes reading a wine label makes you feel like you need a secret decoder ring, but rest assured that this is not to confuse you the customer, but rather to help you.

The information on the label is there to tell you about the wine and also the winery and conditions of production. Once you have an idea of what to look for on a wine label, deciphering it shouldn’t require much effort.

The Brand Name: This is the name of the company that has produced the wine. Most often this is the name of the winery or bottler if the winery has several different brands.

Vintage: Most wines will carry the vintage somewhere on the bottle, although this is not a mandatory requirement and will not be on all bottles. A vintage is the year that the grapes used were harvested. Most wine producing countries have laws that require at least 85 percent of the grapes used to be harvested in the specified year of vintage although in the United States this figure can be as high as 95 percent.

Appellation of Origin: This is the geographical area where the grapes were grown, for example “California” or more a more specific vineyard. Most countries have strict laws regarding an appellation classification, which is why like the vintage; at least 85 percent of the grapes used must be from their specified region.

Wine Type: This specifies the grapes used to make the wine. Again this can be as broad as “Red Table Wine” or as specific as Merlot or Chardonnay. Most wine producing countries allow the use of some non-varietal grapes in the blend. In Europe and Australia, at least 85 percent of the wine’s content must be from the named varietals, while in some parts of the United States this figure is much lower at about 75 percent.

Producer and Bottler: What this part of the bottle signifies varies greatly depending on where the bottle of wine originates from. If grapes are harvested and bottled at the winery it is considered to be “estate bottled” and the label will state this using Mise en bouteille(s) au Chateau (French), Gutsabfüllung/Erzeugerabfüllung (German) or simply Estate Bottled.

According to Napa Valley Vintners online (napavintners.com) it is even more specific for American bottled wines and the terminology even more specifically determines how the wine was bottled: “’Produced and bottled by’ certifies that the bottler fermented 75% or more of the wine. Used in combination with other information on the label, such as a vineyard, this term provides the consumer with significant information about the origin of the wine and who is responsible for its production.

’Cellared and bottled by’ indicates that the bottler has aged the wine or subjected it to cellar treatment before bottling. ‘Made and bottled by’ indicates that the bottler fermented at least 75% of the wine (10% before July 28, 1994). ‘Bottled by’ indicates that the winery bottled the wine, which may have been grown, crushed, fermented, finished, and aged by someone else.”

Other Required Information: This depends on what country the wine is from. For example, wines sold in the United States are required to have (at least on the back label) alcohol content, contents size, and consumer warnings from the Surgeon General as well as a sulphite warning while in Germany wine are required to have an Amptliche Prüfungs Nummer which is a number received while in testing. The famous wine regions of Bordeaux, Burgundy and Alsace in France will carry the term Cru somewhere on the label to indicate that the wine is from a town or producer of high quality.

While this still might be very overwhelming, when looked at from a point of view of the winemaker, a wine label really is there to help you as the consumer, not hinder your decision making. Everything on a wine label is there to inform you of where the wine came from and how it was produced, and while it might take you a lifetime to be able to completely understand every single term that is put on a wine bottle, being able to understand the basics will be advantageous.

It is important to remember that rules will vary from country to country as to what is required to be on a wine bottle or specific terms used. What might be required in France might not be required in Chile.